Choice of cultivar as per length of growing season.
\r\n\t
\r\n\tThis book will intend to provide the reader all the necessary information on apheresis with a comprehensive overview including techniques for therapeutic apheresis, indications of apheresis in the light of guidelines, adverse events associated with apheresis, as well as the care of the apheresis patient.
Industrial machines and devices with rotating operating parts are difficult to model due to their complex geometry, the transition of elements of the discrete model between the rotating and non-rotating parts, the importance of the quality of elements of the discrete model, and the fact that in most cases, it is necessary to take into account the time step (elements rotate in relation to the casing). It is also troublesome that very often the calculations are stabilised only after a few rotations of the operating element. However, the use of computational fluid dynamics methods to model this group of machines and equipment is justified, as it enables:
Determining the internal and external characteristics of machines and devices in virtual space
Imaging and observing the flow phenomena in the machine itself (especially when for various reasons it is impossible to measure physical quantities of the flowing medium)
Designing equipment for which there are no design guidelines (e.g. differentials, mixers)
Improving the efficiency of machinery and equipment
In this chapter, selected examples of numerical calculations will be described, showing the possibility of using CFD methods to solve machine and equipment problems with a rotating operating element, often found in industrial practice.
The innovative vane pump described in study [1] was subjected to the analysis of flow phenomena. In this solution, the pump is integrated into the BLDC permanent magnet electric motor. Due to its design, which differs from the standard solutions, it was necessary to check whether cavitation could occur in the suction channel of the pump. The main objective of the CFD simulation was to determine the areas where cavitation is likely to occur [2] and its intensity depending on the rotational velocity. The subject of the study is a positive displacement pump with integrated electric drive, consisting of an impeller embedded in a casing. Unlike conventional gear and vane pumps [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10], the pump impeller and motor stator are immovable components, while the pump casing rotates with the rotor of the electric motor. Figure 1 shows the 3D model of the analysed pump.
(a) 3D model of the vane pump with integrated mechatronic electric drive and (b) 3D model of the operating fluid volume filling the pump.
An important problem is to examine the flow in the suction channel of the pump, as it is exposed to the adverse effects of cavitation, which can develop as a result of a too high value of negative pressure occurring in the suction area.
On the basis of the three-dimensional model of the pump, a geometric model of the volume of operating fluid filling its interior was prepared (Figure 1b). As expected, the result is a very complex structure in terms of geometry. Due to the particular interest in the phenomena occurring in the suction channel of the pump, the calculations used a fragment of the geometric model of the operating fluid volume filling the interior of the pump, which is the volume of oil filling the pump from the inlet to the suction kidneys supplying the fluid to the inter-vane spaces (Figure 2a). The separated volume is contained in the immovable elements of the structure, which further simplifies the formulation of the flow problem and the choice of calculation parameters.
(a) Suction channel geometry and (b) discrete model.
Based on the three-dimensional pump model, the simplified geometric model of the operating fluid volume filling the suction channel was discretized using a tetrahedral grid. The result is a geometric model divided into 144,390 tetrahedral elements with 29,711 nodes, as shown in Figure 2b.
The next step in formulating the flow problem is to select the type and define the boundary conditions for relevant fragments of the geometry. In the analysed case, the conditions concerning the fluid inflow and outflow were set as shown in Figure 2a.
In order to obtain the most accurate results of the simulation, the “pressure inlet” condition at the inlet and the “mass flow rate” at the outlet were assumed. The mass flow rate was determined using the formula:
where
On this basis, the numerical values entered into the simulation for each impeller velocity were obtained. Within the framework of the study, the analysis of the operating medium flow through the suction channel of the vane pump was performed for various rotational velocity values—changed within the range of 500–3000 rpm.
Figure 3 shows the pressure distributions in the suction channel of the tested pump for the generic geometry. For each of the cases considered, the lowest pressure occurs in one of the channels supplying fluid to the suction kidneys directly at the inlet to the channel. It was found that the negative pressures for the whole range of rotational velocities are higher than the pressure of oil evaporation, which prevents the occurrence of cavitation phenomena.
Generic geometry—suction channel pressure distribution for different rotational velocities: (a) 500 rpm, (b) 1000 rpm, (c) 1500 rpm, (d) 2000 rpm, (e) 2500 rpm and (f) 3000 rpm.
The results of the calculations, apart from pressure distributions, were presented in the form of velocity distributions in the considered area, which are presented in Figure 4. From the obtained velocity distributions, it appears that the rotational velocity of the pump significantly influences the velocity of fluid flow in one of the supply channels for both the generic and the modified geometry. It is worth noting that the area where the highest velocities were identified corresponds to the area of the lowest pressures observed in the suction channel. The velocity of the fluid decreases with the lowering of the rotational velocity, but in the case of simplified geometry, it is slightly lower.
Generic geometry—suction channel velocity distribution for different velocities: (a) 500 rpm, (b) 1000 rpm, (c) 1500 rpm, (d) 2000 rpm, (e) 2500 rpm and (f) 3000 rpm.
Figure 5 shows the fluid flow in the form of streamlines, for which the inflow plane to the domain is assigned as the beginning. The results obtained confirm the previous assumptions that the fluid flows evenly and without major turbulences through both inlet channels. Uneven velocity distribution and different pressure values due to asymmetrical layout of channels did not affect the fluid flow. The results obtained on the basis of numerical calculations are the basis for evaluation of the structure of channels supplying fluid to the inter-vane volumes.
Generic geometry—streamlines in the investigated suction channel area for different velocities: (a) 500 rpm, (b) 1000 rpm, (c) 1500 rpm, (d) 2000 rpm, (e) 2500 rpm and (f) 3000 rpm.
Another object under consideration with rotating operating elements was a radial fan. The aim of the numerical simulation was to improve its efficiency. The flow of real gas through a fan with a finite amount of blades is carried out by the cost of loss of energy, called hydraulic losses. Those losses are a consequence of the friction of air molecules occurring on the blade walls and fan housing, vortexes developed in the gas stream, etc. The influence of hydraulic losses on the working characteristic of the radial fan is described by a hydraulic efficiency coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of the useful power to the power delivered by the impeller. This coefficient also defines the real delivery height to the theoretical delivery height—obtained for the finite amount of impeller blades. The impeller geometry considered in possible options, i.e. with eight (factory option) and nine (suggested option) vanes, are shown in Figures 6 and 7.
Impeller shape: eight vanes.
Impeller shape: nine vanes.
For the calculations, the model of impeller according to the enclosed documentation was used as the output model. Calculations have been made for both impeller variants. For both of the cases, the discrete model was based on tetrahedral elements (as exemplary shown in Figure 8). Elements near walls were compacted. The flow was modelled as turbulent, using the RANS method and the two-equation turbulence model k-ε.
Discrete model with division into tetrahedral elements on the impeller and vanes.
In the first stage of the study, the analysis of the impeller with eight (Figure 6) and nine (Figure 7) vanes was carried out. For the eight vanes, the results of the simulation were also compared with the available results in the technical documentation and found to be similar (Figure 9). Furthermore, the overall performance of the two types of impellers found with aid of CFD calculation maintains in similar level.
Comparison of the calculation results and the results of the technical documentation for the impeller with the eight and nine vanes.
In order to verify the correctness of the calculation of the main dimensions of the impeller, a theoretical design process was carried out. On the basis of known designs, the influence of impeller parameters on its performance, compression and efficiency was simulated. It was necessary to maintain the existing parameters of the impeller, improving only its efficiency. The modifications were limited by the external dimensions of the impeller in order to be able to work with the existing collecting volute.
After a number of variant combinations, the outlet angle of the vane was changed to 23° and the vane profile modified to improve efficiency. The results show that by changing the outlet angle, the average efficiency for the eight-vane impeller was increased by 2.3% and for the nine-vane impeller by 2.9% in relation to the basic eight-vane impeller.
Figure 10 shows a comparison of the flow images for the impellers with eight and nine vanes with a 23° outlet angle.
Total velocity [m/s] distribution for calculated impeller operating points with eight and nine vanes.
The best results were obtained for the nine-vane impeller and the changed outlet angle. An average efficiency increase of 2.9% was achieved in relation to the impeller from the technical documentation. The flow images are correct. There are no particularly dangerous phenomena, such as interruption of flow or turbulence.
Another object of the study was a single-stage centrifugal pump with a spiral volute cooperating with two similar types of impellers, commonly used in such a device. Those impellers are denoted as W13 and W17. The W17 impeller differs from the W13 impeller only by the shape of a vane. Both impellers had eight vanes each. The analysis of the impellers with the two-dimensional peculiarity method for non-viscous medium suggested higher cavitation resistance of the W13 impeller.
In the first stage, calculations were made of the undetermined flow through the pump without cavitation in order to determine the most favourable boundary conditions to be applied when analysing the flow through the pump and determining the calculation characteristics of the pump and the impeller.
The calculations reflect the full three-dimensional geometry of the pump (Figure 11) consisting of a straight section of the pipeline before the inlet to the impeller, a centrifugal impeller, a spiral collecting volute, a diffuser, and a short section of pipeline after the pump.
The calculation area under consideration and its characteristic cross sections (W13 impeller pump).
Separate discreet models have been built in the inlet and outlet impeller areas. On the cylindrical surface between the impeller and the volute, these models were not connected by common nodes and remained unfit. Thus, during the calculation it was possible to use the “sliding mesh” technique, which is used to model the rotation of the impeller in relation to the stationary casing. The discrete model is built with approximately 1.3 million tetrahedral elements in total. The elements were also compacted near the vane surface and in the area between the impeller and the collecting channel (Figure 12).
Discrete model by type of tetrahedral element of the impeller surface, on the hub and rear disc side.
The mathematical model of the flow is described by the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations (RANS). For the description of the turbulence, a two-equation k-ε model was used. The following control surfaces were used, where static pressure was monitored during the calculation:
The inlet section at the beginning of the suction channel (A-A)
The cylindrical surface at the outlet from the impeller inter-vane channel (B-B)
The cross section at the end of the diffuser (C-C)
The outlet section at the end of the cylindrical section of the pipeline (D-D)
Calculations were made according to the scheme:
In the inlet section (A-A), a homogeneous velocity field was set with the value resulting from the flow rate and the channel section area c = Q/A and the direction corresponding to the connector axis (“velocity inlet” boundary condition). In cross section (D-D), a high static pressure of 1000 kPa was set so that the pressure in the impeller would not drop below the saturation vapour pressure (“pressure outlet” boundary condition). A two-phase flow “mixture” model was selected for the calculations. During the calculations, equations describing the formation of the gaseous phase (cavitation) were excluded. This approach is suggested by ANSYS Fluent.
On the internal walls of the flow channel, the condition of zero velocity of the fluid in relation to the wall was set. The increase of static pressure (increase of hydrostatic height) between inlet and outlet cross sections of the pump was the expected value and allowed to reproduce flow characteristics. During the calculations, the average static pressure was monitored on the four control surfaces mentioned above. The calculations were interrupted after repeated oscillations of the static pressure on these surfaces were obtained, which took place after 6–8 rotations of the impeller. An example of a pressure pulsation diagram is shown in Figure 13. A fixed time step of Δt = 5,75E–5 s, corresponding to an impeller rotation by 1°, was used for the calculations.
Example pressure pulsation diagram as pressure difference between vane outlet (interface_2) and inlet (inlet), depending on iteration (time).
The calculated flow characteristics of the entire pump and the W13 impeller are presented in Figure 14. The course of the relevant experimental characteristics is also presented.
Pump and impeller flow characteristics W13 determined by calculation of the transient flow (spiral collecting channel model): comparison with experimental data.
The pump characteristics indicate a pressure increase between the cross sections A-A and C-C, characteristics of the impeller—between sections A-A and B-B. The pressure drop in the suction channel is insignificant compared to the pressure drop in the impeller.
Cavitation in the pump is associated with a pressure drop in the suction area of the first degree [11]. This causes the fluid-vapour biphasic flow to occur and the continuity of the flow through the pump to be interrupted. In centrifugal pumps, cavitation shall be characterised by a clearly visible disturbance in the following characteristics: flow H = f(Q), power consumption P = f(Q) and efficiency η = f(Q). If the suction height increases at a given velocity and flow rate (or the intake height decreases), then the boundary value of the suction height at which the pump enters the cavitation state is obtained. In this way, taking into account a certain safety margin, it is possible to obtain a curve of the required excess of the energy of a fluid at the pump inlet section over the energy of evaporation of this fluid in the form of NPSH = f(Q) (net positive suction head). The NPSH parameter expresses the “suction power” of the pump:
where
Determination of the cavitation state in the impeller for a given flow rate requires many calculations of the pressure distribution in the inter-vane space at the decreasing inlet pressure. The simulation assumes that a simplified geometric model of a collective channel can be used to determine the flow characteristics of the impeller itself. Instead of a spiral, an axial-symmetrical guide was used as a drainage element for the medium.
Due to the symmetry of geometry, the flow through the impeller is determined. The elimination of pressure pulsations has significantly accelerated the iterative calculation process. The flow field in the impeller still remained a periodic-symmetric field, but it was the same in all the vane channels. This allowed the calculation area to be limited to one inter-vane channel of the impeller. As a result, the calculation time corresponding to one characteristic point has been reduced.
A discrete model consisting of about 300,000 hexahedral cells was used. Since the discrete model remains stationary during the calculation, a
For the calculations, the “velocity inlet” and “pressure outlet” boundary conditions were used on the outer surface of the annular collecting channel and the two-phase flow “mixture” model. During the calculation, the average static pressure value at the cross sections A-A (inlet) and B-B (outlet from the impeller inter-vane channel) was monitored.
Cavitation test in the impeller was performed for several selected values of the flow rate. Calculations were carried out in which equations describing cavitation and two-phase flow were included. The static pressure at the outlet was gradually reduced from 800 to 580 kPa.
It was found that the lowest pressure in the impeller was initially higher than the saturated vapour pressure pmin > pv; then it was already limited by the pv value. For each set outlet pressure, the static inlet pressure was recorded. In the W13 impeller, cavitation occurs on the impeller vanes, close to the incidence edge on the concave side of the vane. In the W17 impeller, cavitation appears on the convex side of the vane (for Q = 70 m3/h). Selected images of the development of cavitation are presented in Figures 15 and 16.
Cavitation development image on the impeller W13 disc surface at Q = 70 m3/h and decreasing static pressure at the inlet (percentage of gas phase is given).
Cavitation development image on the impeller W17 disc surface at Q = 70 m3/h and decreasing static inlet pressure (percentage of gas phase is given).
When the outlet pressure is further reduced, it reaches a constant boundary value, depending on the flow rate—fully developed cavitation. Further lowering of the outlet pressure leads to a loss of convergence and interruption of the calculation.
Cavitation image – model with spiral collection channel and immovable impeller (
Cavitation area for parameters: (a) inlet = 189 kPa and outlet = 800 kPa, (b) inlet = 95 kPa and outlet = 700 kPa, (c) inlet = 58 kPa and outlet = 650 kPa, (d) inlet = 27 kPa and outlet = 622 kPa and (e) inlet = 27 kPa and outlet = 600 kPa. The percentage of gas phase is given.
Cavitation area for parameters: (a) inlet = 28.3 kPa and outlet = 675 kPa, (b) inlet = 27.8 kPa and outlet = 650 kPa and (c) inlet = 27.8 kPa and outlet = 622 kPa. The percentage of gas phase is given.
The cavitation fields for the axial-symmetric model are correctly symmetrical. However, the behaviour of the tested impellers is different:
Impeller W13: cavitation is formed on the concave side of the vane.
Impeller W17: cavitation is formed on the convex side of the vane.
The calculations converge quickly. However, the cavitation fields in the
The different cavitation properties of the two impellers can be explained by the significantly different inlet angle of the β1 vane—30°40′ (W13) and 21° (W17)—as with the same other geometric data, resulted in a very different position of the ideal inflow point. This is confirmed by the experimental characteristics of the pumps H = f(Q) and η = f(Q) from operation.
The analyses indicated the possibility of obtaining information on cavitation resistance of the designed structure through the rational use of CFD programs. The alternative solution of designing a prototype pump and carrying out a series of experiments may be challenging.
The CFD analysis made it possible to identify areas where cavitation is more likely to occur and to assess its intensity in relation to the rotational velocity. The results showed that one of the inlet channels has both negative pressure and increased fluid flow velocity. Calculations made for different pump rotational velocities and different suction channel geometries have shown that the intensity of these phenomena increases with the rotational velocity. However, these phenomena are not strong enough to contribute to the development of the phenomenon of cavitation. A series of simulations for different suction channel geometries have confirmed that no modification of the suction channel geometry is required. Considering the designs presented here the cavitation occurred either on the convex or concave side of the vane. The main difference between the vanes was the angle of its inclination. Hence there is a specific angle between 30 and 21° at which the transition occurs. The volumetric flow rate was unchanged in both of the impeller designs, although the inlet pressures were found to be different. For blades inclined at 30°, the inlet pressures were almost twice lower than in the case of 21°. Hence lower inclination of blades is more immune to cavitation development.
The CFD calculations were made to check the selection of the main dimensions of the radial fan. After performing many variant calculations, it was found that by changing the number of blades and the outlet angle of the blades, it is possible to increase the efficiency of the fan. It appeared that the efficiency is greater for impellers with greater amount of vanes. Furthermore the efficiency increased when the vanes were inclined to 23°, and as stated above, at such angle the cavitation occurs at higher inlet pressures and represent higher immunity to cavitation. Therefore the increase of efficiency may be partially a consequence of lack of cavitation.
It was found that the characteristics of the centrifugal pump from CFD calculations are consistent with the characteristics obtained experimentally. Based on the CFD analysis, cavitation resistance of the designed centrifugal pump was determined.
Maize is known as the Queen of Cereals’ due to its’ demand and wider adaptability. It is the second most important cereal crop in the world in terms of acreage and production. Global production of Maize was about 1040 million MT in the year 2016–2017, where in USA and China contributed about 38 and 23%, respectively. In India, maize is the 3rd most important food crop after rice and wheat, where about 15 million farmers are engaged in maize cultivation [1]. In India, Andhra Pradesh ranks first in maize production followed by Karnataka with per cent share of 20.9 and 16.5, respectively [2]. It has a share of 9% in about Rs. 100 billion agriculture sector gross domestic product [3]. Maize can be cultivated successfully in loamy sand to heavy clay, well aerated, neutral pH soils. As of tropical origin, it is highly sensitive to water stagnation, so avoid the cultivation in low-lying or poor drainage fields. Furthermore, extended low temperature less 5°C severally affects the crop. Optimum range of temperature for better crop growth and yield realization is 25–35°C [4]. Being day neutral, maize crop can be cultivated throughout the year which leads to high yield levels in a short period of time. In this chapter, we are going to discuss an array of different production technologies to be followed by farmers for successful cultivation and better realization of yields. A brief outline of the chapter is given below.
\nCentral America and Mexico is the primary centre of origin of maize which consists of a diversity of maize crop. Various studies reveal that maize crop was a significant crop in Mexico about 5000 years ago. USA has the largest area under maize crop followed by Brazil, China, Mexico and India. USA also stands first in terms of production followed by China. In India, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab are the major maize growing states. Highest acreage and production is in Uttar Pradesh while average yield/ha is recorded in Andhra Pradesh [2, 5].
\nMaize crop can grow under diverse conditions from sea level to about 3000 m altitude throughout the year in many parts of the country. In Northern India,
Type of cultivar/hybrid to be grown depends on the crop season namely, spring,
Length of cropping season (days) | \nType of cultivar | \n
---|---|
More than 100 | \nLate maturing | \n
90 to 100 | \nMedium maturing | \n
80 to 90 | \nEarly maturing | \n
Choice of cultivar as per length of growing season.
Due to occurrence of diverse climatic conditions in country, planting time varies from place to place. Optimum planting time in different agro-climatic regions is described in \nTable 2\n [2]. The optimum time to sow the crop depends on availability of irrigation facilities. For example, if irrigation facilities are available, maize crop can be sown about 2 weeks before onset of monsoon while under rainfed conditions, crop is sown with the onset of monsoon to have optimum moisture regime so that proper plant stand can be maintained in field. In Punjab, Maize crop can be sown during all seasons at following sowing times (\nTable 3\n) [7, 8]:
\nAgro-climatic region | \nOptimum planting time | \n
---|---|
Indo-gangatic plains | \n15 June–15 July | \n
North-western hills | \nApril-early May | \n
North-eastern hills | \nFirst fortnight of March | \n
Peninsular region | \nMay–June | \n
Optimum planting of maize in different agro-climatic regions.
Season | \nPlanting time | \n
---|---|
\n | \nLast week of May to last week of June | \n
Spring | \n20th of Jan to 15th of Feb | \n
Season wise planting time maize.
Being a non-tillering crop it cannot compensate for the lost space if proper plant stand is not maintained under field conditions. So maintenance of 60–65,000 plants/ha is pre-requisite for realizing maximum yield. Sowing of the crop should be done 60 × 20–25 cm crop geometry. For hybrids and composites, seed rate can be used with respect to seed weight and requirement of plant population as given in \nTable 4\n [2, 8].
\nHybrids | \n20–25 kg/ha | \n
Composites | \n18–20 kg/ha | \n
Seed rate of maize hybrids and composites.
Seed treatment plays a pivotal role in prevention of diseases and availability of nutrients to growing crop. For instance, seed treatment of maize with Bavistin or Derosal or Agrozim 50 WP (Carbendazim) @ 3 g/kg seed prevents the attack of seed and soil borne diseases in maize crop. Furthermore, treatment of seed with consortium (biofertilizer) @ 1.25 kg/ha helps in yield enhancement and improvement of soil health [2, 7, 8].
\nCrop geometry has direct effect on inter and intra-plant competition in field crops. Maize crop can be planted in varied crop geometries (\nTable 5\n) depending upon the purpose of cultivation [2, 8]. Interculture operations like thinning, gap filling and earthing-up play critical role in performance of maize crop. Thinning needs to be performed about 10 days after germination to keep 1 plant/hill. Further, 2 earthing-ups are required in maize crop. First at 35–40 and 2nd at 60–65 days after germination [9].
\nPurpose | \nCrop geometry | \n
---|---|
Grain crop | \n60 cm × 20 cm; 75 cm × 20 cm | \n
Baby corn | \n30 cm × 20 cm; 60 cm × 15 cm | \n
Fodder | \n30 cm × 10 cm | \n
Crop geometry of maize to be followed as per requirement.
Although crop establishment is a series of events that depends on interactions of seed, soil moisture, method of sowing, machinery etc. but method of planting plays an important role in establishment of crop under given set of conditions. Maize is mainly sown directly through seed by using different methods of tillage & establishment. Recently, resource conservation technologies (RCTs) namely, zero tillage, minimum tillage, surface seeding etc. had came in practice in various maize based cropping system and are cost effective and environment friendly. Following are major planting methods that vary from situation to situation.
\nMaize crop can be cultivated without any primary tillage under no-till (\nFigure 1\n) with decreased cost of cultivation and better resource use efficiency. In this situation, maintenance of proper soil moisture at sowing and band placement of seed and fertilizers with zero-till seed-cum-fertilizer planter with furrow opener as per the soil texture and field conditions is pre-requisite. The technology is followed by large number of farmers especially under rice-maize and maize-wheat systems in peninssular and eastern India. If the field is infested with weeds, farmers can go for foliar spray of gramoxone 24 SL (paraquat) @ 1250 ml/ha about 24 hours before planting of maize crop [2, 7, 8].
\nMaize crop sown under zero tillage system.
This planting method (\nFigure 2\n) is considered best for cultivation during monsoon and winter seasons both under excess and limited water availability conditions. On non-uniform lands, this method is most suitable for successful cultivation of maize crop. Planting of crop needs to be done on the southern side of the east–west ridges/beds for better exposure to sunlight during winters and better crop stand. Raised bed planter having inclined plate, cupping or roller type seed dropping system should be used for planting that facilitates proper placement of seed and fertilizers in single operation for having good crop stand, higher productivity and resource use efficiency. Irrigation water can be saved to the tune of 20–30%. Under temporary excess soil moisture/water logging due to heavy rains, the furrows will act as drainage channels and crop can be saved from excess soil moisture stress [2, 5, 7, 8].
\nPlanting of maize crop on the ridges.
Maize crop can be cultivated by conventional tillage flat planting (\nFigure 3\n) depending upon soil type and availability of irrigation facilities. Light soils have high infiltration rate and low water holding capacity, so farmers can go for flat planting of maize crop. Under rainfed conditions, to have better moisture availability to crop for longer period, flat planting becomes better alternate. Flat planting is also beneficial when no tillage system gets infested with high weed population and chemical/manual weed control becomes non-economical [7, 8].
\nFlat sowing of maize crop.
It is better establishment technique winter maize (\nFigure 4\n) in the intensive cropping system where field cannot be vacated on time, to prevent the delayed planting and crop loss due to low temperature. Under this situation, nursery of the crop is raised on a smaller portion of land and seedlings are transplanted in required field as and when they achieve certain age. For example, if the fields are to be vacated during December–January, it is advisable to go for nursery sowing 30–40 days before the transplanting. Seedlings can be transplanted in the furrows followed by light irrigation [2, 5].
\nMaize crop establishment through transplanting system.
Furrow planting (\nFigure 5\n) of maize is recommended when crop is to be cultivated during spring season as high evaporative losses may lead to water deficit stress in flat and raised bed or ridge sowing [2, 5, 7, 8].
\nCrop establishment by furrow planting.
Water requirement of the maize crop varies from 400 to 600 mm [10]. Excess or shortage of moisture can have harmful impact on the crop growth. Proper drainage of standing water and meeting the crop needs at critical stages play a pivotal role in better crop performance. Especially for winter maize, it is advisable to keep soil wet (frequent & mild irrigation) during 15 December to 15 February to protect the crop from frost injury [3].
\nFlood method of irrigation is followed where maize crop is cultivated with flat sowing. Crop is irrigated as and when required. Generally, young seedlings, knee high stage (V8), flowering (VT) and grain 7.
\nfilling (GF) are critical stages and hence irrigation should be ensured at these stages [2, 7, 8].
\nWhen crop is cultivated as ridge/raised bed planting, furrow irrigation is followed. Care needs to be taken at first irrigation that water should not overflow on the ridges/beds. As a thumb rule, the irrigation should be applied in furrows up to 2/3rd height of the ridges/beds. In raised bed and in limited irrigation water, the irrigation water can also be applied in alternate furrows to save irrigation water. In rainfed conditions, tied-ridges prove helpful in conserving the rainwater, increasing its availability in the root zone for longer period [2, 7, 8, 11].
\nHigh temperature and high evaporative demand during summer season enhances the water requirement of maize crop as a result of which farmers go for a number of irrigation. To increase the water use efficiency of crop, above ground drip irrigation is recommended by Punjab Agricultural University. In this, broad beds are prepared at 1.20 m apart from centre to centre of furrow. These beds are 80 cm wide on the top and 40 cm wide furrows between beds. The beds are covered with U.V stabilized plastic film (Black) of 25 micron thickness (23 grams per m2). Two rows of maize are planted at a spacing of 60 cm keeping plant to plant distance of 20 cm. One lateral pipe is used to irrigate two rows of maize. The drippers are spaced 30 cm apart and are operated at a discharge of 2.2 L per hour as given in \nTable 6\n [7, 8, 12]. Prevailing climatic regimes of an area affect the efficiency of drip irrigation system [12].
\nMonth | \nTiming of irrigation (min) | \n
---|---|
February | \n22 | \n
March | \n64 | \n
April | \n120 | \n
May | \n130 | \n
Month-wise timing of above ground drip irrigation in spring maize.
* If discharge rate is different, time of irrigation may be adjusted proportionally by the formula:
\nIn field experiments, sub surface drip irrigation and fertigation resulted in 18.4% higher system productivity with saving of 28.5% applied irrigation water. Sub-surface irrigation technology can be followed in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system. For this system, Place drip inline having dripper having 20 cm spacing at 20 cm depth with lateral to lateral spacing of 67.5 cm for sub surface drip irrigation in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system. Sow one row of maize, two rows of wheat and two rows of summer moong on each drip inline during respective season. If discharge of the dripper is 2.2 L/hour, the schedule given in \nTable 7\n can be followed for sub-surface drip irrigation in above mentioned cropping system [7, 8, 10].
\nCrop | \nMonth | \nTiming of irrigation (min) | \n
---|---|---|
Maize | \nJuly | \n35 | \n
August | \n35 | \n|
September | \n50 | \n|
October | \n30 | \n|
Wheat | \nDecember | \n30 | \n
January | \n65 | \n|
February | \n70 | \n|
March | \n50 | \n|
Summer Moong | \nMay | \n60 | \n
June | \n45 | \n
Month-wise timing of sub-surface drip irrigation in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system.
If discharge rate is different, then time of irrigation may be adjusted proportionally by the formula:
\nThis technique (\nFigure 6\n) involves alternate wetting and drying of two halves of root zone of crop plants during consecutive irrigations. The PRD technique was developed on the basis of knowledge of root-to-shoot chemical signaling (can be negative or positive) about soil conditions that regulates the shoot physiology. Alternating is essential for maintaining a constant emission of signals from the root-to-shoot, because prolonged exposure of root to drying soil may cause anatomical changes which reduce the ability of root to sense soil drying and not able to sustain the production of ABA for long time period [10]. Different methods to apply the PRD technique can be separation of root system into two parts with sheet particularly in pots, controlled alternate surface drip irrigation on half part of the root zone, controlled alternate subsurface drip irrigation on half part of the root zone or controlled alternate furrow irrigation [10].
\nField view of partial root drying irrigation technique in maize.
Maize crop is infested with grassy and broad leaf annual weeds. Among grassy,
Non-chemical weed control measures can physical or cultural that means manual removal of weeds from the maize fields. In cultural method, Give two hoeings 15–30 days after sowing with khurpa/kasaula/wheel-hoe/triphali/tractor-drawn cultivator. Mulching is practice of keeping crop residues or plastic sheets on the soil surface within the crop rows. Mulching helps in temperature regulation, water conservation as well weed control in field crops [7, 8].
\nSometimes due to continuous rains during the early stages of maize growth it becomes impossible to enter in the field. Also due to scarce availability of farm labour, the only effective way to control weeds is the use of herbicides. Spray of atrataf 50 WP (atrazine) @ 2 kg/ha on medium to heavy textured soils and 1.25 kg/ha in light soils within 10 days of sowing, using 500 L of water prove propitious in keeping weed population low in maize fields. Spray the herbicide uniformly at recommended rates to minimize residual toxicity to crops sown after maize. Alternatively, spray 262.5 ml/ha laudis 420 SC (tembotrione) in 375 L of water at 20 days after sowing provides effective control of mixed weed flora. For the control of
Among the cereal crops, maize in general and specifically hybrids are very responsive to nutrients applied through organic or inorganic means. The rate of application depends on soil nutrient status and cropping system. For realizing required yield, the dose of applied nutrients should be as par the soil supplying capacity and crop demand. As the response of maize crop to organic manures is remarkable so integrated nutrient management (INM) is very important option in maize based systems.
Apply 10–15 t/ha of good quality farmyard manure per hectare to the maize crop year after year [7, 8].
Green manure the field, to be put under maize with Dhaincha/Sunhemp/Cowpea. Cowpea/Dhaincha/Sunhemp should be sown during second fortnight of April using 12/20/20 kg seed per acre, respectively. The 50 days old green manure crop should be burried and allowed to decompose for about 10 days before sowing of maize. In case, summer moong crop is grown the straw should be burried before sowing of maize [7, 8].
Inoculate the maize seed with recommended bio-fertilizer as described earlier. For this, mix half kg packet of recommended consortium bio-fertilizer with 1 L of water and then thoroughly mix it with maize seed on clean pucca floor. Let it dry in shade and sow the seed immediately. Inoculation with bio-fertilizer should be done after treating the seed with fungicide. The seed inoculation with consortium biofertilizer increase grain yield as well as improves soil health [7, 8, 11].
Paddy straw compost @ 450 kg/ha along with recommended dose of fertilizers can be an alternate to farm yard manure [7, 8].
As a general recommendation, one could apply 120 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare for hybrids and 80 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O per hectare for composites. Drill one third of nitrogen and the entire quantity of phosphorous and potassium at the time of sowing. Top dress one third of nitrogen at the knee-high stage and the remaining one third at the pre tasseling stage. It may be noted that application of nitrogen fertilizer more than recommended dose is no substitute for FYM [7, 8].
Decreased Zn availability visuals emerge on middle leaves (2nd or 3rd from tip) of plants which include white or light yellow band and reddish veins on both sides of the midrib [7, 8]. Remedial measures are described in \nTable 8\n:
Method of application | \nZnSO4 (33%) | \nZnSO4 (21%) | \n
---|---|---|
Broadcasting | \n16.25 kilogram/ha | \n25 kilogram/ha | \n
Foliar application | \n1.88 + 0.94 kilogram unslaked lime | \n3 + 1.5 kilogram unslaked lime | \n
Remedial measures for Zn deficiency in maize.
It refers to simultaneous application of irrigation water and fertilizers by drip irrigation. By this method, FUE can go up to 80%. In drip irrigation model for spring maize, certain recommendations are made in respect to fertilizer application along with drip irrigation. For the medium fertility soils application of 200 kg of urea, 80 kg of mono ammonium phosphate (MAP) and 40 kg of muriate of potash (white)/ha is recommended. Start fertigation 12 days after sowing of maize and apply 25% of the fertilizers in four equal splits during first month on weekly basis. Rest of the fertilizer should be applied in equal splits on weekly basis upto first week of May. Furthermore, in sub-surface drip irrigation, fertilizer can be applied to maize crop when grown in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system. For instance, Apply sub surface drip irrigation at 3 days interval for maize and summer moong with fertigation of 80% recommended dose of NPK. In maize, apply 1/5 dose of NPK at sowing and fertigate remaining P and K in 5 splits and N in 7 splits at 9 days interval starting from 15 DAS. Apply sub surface drip irrigation at 7 days interval up to mid-February and thereafter at 5 days interval to wheat with fertigation of 80% recommended dose of NPK. In wheat, apply 1/5th dose of NPK at sowing and fertigated the remaining NPK in 8 splits at 7 days interval starting from crown root initiation. In summer moong, fertigated NPK dose in 5 equal splits at 6 days interval starting from 10 DAS. Use urea, mono ammonium 119 phosphate and muriate of potash as source of N, P and K, respectively [7, 8].
\nIPM (\nFigure 7\n) is highly efficient and eco-friendly strategy which includes integrated use of all possible alternates that can be biological, physical, cultural or chemical for controlling pests. Growers who are aware of the potential for pest infestation follow a four-tiered approach. The four steps include: set action thresholds, monitor and identify pests, prevention and control [11, 13].
\n
\n
\n
\n
Components of IPM.
This approach encompasses use of living entities for the control of insect-pests and diseases. Living entities can be predators, herbivores or parasites along with intensive human interference. For controlling maize borer and other insects, apply bio-insecticides like Neemazal (1%) @ 300 ml/ha. The maize borer can also be managed by using tricho-cards twice having 40,000 eggs of Corcyra parasitized by
\n
Summer plowing of field.
Destruction of perennating stages in stubbles, cobs, stalks.
Cut and bury the severely infested plant parts.
Spray the crop 2–3 weeks after sowing as soon as borer injury to the leaves is noticed with Coragen 18.5 SC (chlorantraniliprole) @ 75 ml using 150 L water/ha with knap-sack sprayer [7, 8, 11].
Damage of maize crop by maize stem borer.
\n
Spring crop should be sown between January 20 and February 15.
Seed should be treated with gaucho (imidacloprid) 600 FS @ 6 ml/kg seed [7].
Attack of shoot fly in maize crop.
\n
Collection and destruction of young larvae by cutting and burying the attacked plant parts.
\n
In recent years, non-associated pests (\nFigures 10\n and \n11\n) have been reported in different parts of India with the details as below (\nTable 9\n) [3]:
\nAttack of army worm in maize crop.
Attack of pollen eating beetle on maize tassels.
Pest name | \nPlant part infested | \nRegion | \n
---|---|---|
\n | \nCob | \nSouthern India | \n
\n | \nPollen | \nNorthern India | \n
Recently reported pest infestations in maize.
\n
\n
Maize crop infested with banded leaf and sheath blight.
\n
Maydis leaf blight attack in maize crop.
\n
\n
Removal of secondary host, that is,
Proper drainage of the fields.
Spray mancozeb @ 500 g/ha in 250 L of water after about a fortnight of sowing. Give two more sprays at 10-day intervals. Grow recommended varieties [7, 8, 11].
Maize crop attacked by brown stripe downy mildew.
For use as grain, cobs should be harvested when grains are at about 20% moisture. Whereas to consume as sweet corn, harvesting should be done when tassel starts turning brown and swelling of cob initiates. In case of baby corn, harvest young cob when the silk is near emergence [6].
\nSystem in which >2 crops are cultivated in proper sequence on given piece of land during a year. Efficiency of the system is determined by a number of factors namely, manpower, choice of crop/cultivar, availability of irrigation facilities etc. technical competence, need based farm activities play a critical role in performance of multiple cropping. Following strategies can be adopted for successful adoption of intensive cropping:
\n\nMaize crop can be cultivated along with other crops as intercrops for better utilization of resources, enhanced income per unit area and time basis. For instance, intercropping of 1 row of fodder cowpea or maize, groundnut and soybean in
Crops like wheat, paddy, potato, sugarcane, chickpea, berseem, barley, oats etc. can be grown successfully after harvest of maize crop. Following are some of the most appropriate maize based cropping systems [2, 8]:
Cowpea/pearl millet/maize (fodder)
Spring maize-basmati-wheat
Maize/rice-wheat
Maize/rice-potato-wheat
Maize-potato/
Maize-potato-onion
Maize-potato-mentha
Maize-wheat/celery-pearl millet fodder
Maize/rice-
Maize-vegetable pea/potato-spring maize
Maize-potato-sugarcane-wheat
Maize-wheat-sugarcane
Maize drying is a vital operation which involves removal of moisture from the cobs/grains. It is carried out because high moisture grain will deteriorate rapidly due to grain respiration and heating, germination of grains, mold (fungal) growth and subsequent incidence of mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxin) and increase insect multiplication and damage. The optimum moisture content of maize should be 14% or less [14].
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
A portable maize dryer 3 ton capacity has been developed by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana as per international norms and recommended to dry maize grains from a moisture level 25 to 15% in 8–10 hours. This cross-flow dryer has three pass, indirect type diesel fired heating system. A control panel to regulate and display the temperature of heated air, exit air and speed of air blower with variable frequency drive is provided for better operation. The dryer can maintain air temperature 60–75°C with the grain temperature of 45°C for seed and 60°C for commercial purpose. The dryer is capable of drying maize grain @ 1.0–1.5% per hour consuming about 4 L/hour. of diesel initially for 1 hour. A provision of heat recovery from flue gases ensures higher fuel efficiency with reduced diesel consumption to about 2 L/hour, later on. The dryer can be operated both with tractor PTO or electricity. One each of skilled and unskilled labor is required to operate this dryer [8].
\n\n
Adoption of production techniques namely, selection of cultivars, irrigation techniques, INM. IPM and other technological interventions certainly prove propitious in achieving the potential yield targets.
Maize crop provides better opportunity to scientific community in exploration of resource conservation technologies like zero tillage, partial root drying irrigation, integrated pest management etc.
Characteristically, maize crop can fit well in diverse crop rotations and intercropping options, which enhances its preference in intensive agriculture.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
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