\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6116",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Modelling, Simulation and Identification",title:"Modelling, Simulation and Identification",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Modeling, simulation and identification has been actively researched in solving practical engineering problems. This book presents the wide applications of modeling, simulation and identification in the fields of electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, computer science and information technology. The book consists of 17 chapters arranged in an order reflecting multidimensionality of applications related to power system, wireless communication, image and video processing, control systems, robotics, soil mechanics, road engineering, mechanical structures and workforce capacity planning. New techniques in signal processing, adaptive control, non-linear system identification, multi-agent simulation, eigenvalue analysis, risk assessment, modeling of dynamic systems, finite difference time domain modeling and visual feedback are also presented. We hope that readers will find the book useful and inspiring by examining the recent developments in the applications of modeling, simulation and identification.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-136-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5934-6",doi:"10.5772/255",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"modelling--simulation-and-identification",numberOfPages:356,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"5858c96a84d8903c0069d660d2792973",bookSignature:"Azah Mohamed",publishedDate:"August 18th 2010",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6116.jpg",numberOfDownloads:46106,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 1st 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"10453",title:"Dr.",name:"Azah",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",slug:"azah-mohamed",fullName:"Azah Mohamed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/10453/images/system/10453.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"595",title:"Communication System",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-communication-system"}],chapters:[{id:"11731",title:"Power Quality Disturbance Detection and Source Prediction Using Advanced Signal Processing Techniques",doi:"10.5772/10012",slug:"power-quality-disturbance-detection-and-source-prediction-using-advanced-signal-processing-technique",totalDownloads:2844,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Azah Mohamed, Mohammed Abdol Slaem and Mohammad Fuad Faisal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11731",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11732",title:"Voltage Sags and Equipment Sensitivity: a Practical Investigation",doi:"10.5772/10013",slug:"voltage-sags-and-equipment-sensitivity-a-practical-investigation",totalDownloads:5013,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Hussain Shareef, Azah Mohamed and Nazri Marzuki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/11732",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/11732",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"11733",title:"Applications of the Parallel-LN-FDTD Method to Calculating Transient EM Field in Complex Power Systems",doi:"10.5772/10014",slug:"techniques-and-methods-for-calculation-and-visualization-of-transient-electromagnetic-fields-interac",totalDownloads:2187,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Rodrigo M.S de Oliveira, Reinaldo C. 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A. Uchoa",dateSubmitted:"March 31st 2011",dateReviewed:"September 21st 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 24th 2012",book:{id:"874",title:"Integrated Pest Management and Pest Control",subtitle:"Current and Future Tactics",fullTitle:"Integrated Pest Management and Pest Control - Current and Future Tactics",slug:"integrated-pest-management-and-pest-control-current-and-future-tactics",publishedDate:"February 24th 2012",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/874.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"87919",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoel",middleName:null,surname:"Uchoa",fullName:"Manoel Uchoa",slug:"manoel-uchoa",email:"uchoa.manoel@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"29609",slug:"fruit-flies-diptera-tephritoidea-biology-host-plants-natural-enemies-and-the-implications-to-their-n",signatures:"M. A. Uchoa",dateSubmitted:"March 31st 2011",dateReviewed:"September 21st 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 24th 2012",book:{id:"874",title:"Integrated Pest Management and Pest Control",subtitle:"Current and Future Tactics",fullTitle:"Integrated Pest Management and Pest Control - Current and Future Tactics",slug:"integrated-pest-management-and-pest-control-current-and-future-tactics",publishedDate:"February 24th 2012",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. 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Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/874.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14863",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Soloneski",slug:"sonia-soloneski",fullName:"Sonia Soloneski"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10535",leadTitle:null,title:"Origins and Impacts of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Resulting From the Zoonotic Chinese Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tDespite the extensive number of institutional programs, projects, and literature with the latest knowledge and international actions on the necessary technological and socio-economical preparedness to face infectious disease epidemics, healthcare systems have been overwhelmed with COVID-19. Typically, pandemic ignitions occur due to zoonotic agents tied to long-term human impacts on biodiversity. The ongoing emergent and highly-contagious Chinese coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 that induces a syndrome misnamed Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is one of the most recent zoonotic pathogens resulting from human impact on wildlife. While the real origin of the SARS-COV-2 virus is not known, we do know that specific wild animals, which were hosts of the virus, were illegally caught by poachers (Africa or Asia) and then transported and used in fake medicines, as food in restaurants, and sold to Chinese wet markets' clients, possibly resulting in the virus transfer to humans. Another possibility is that the virus, due to human error, was leaked from a lab close to the wet market in China. The nature of the original virus is not completely known. Indeed, it could be a native virus, resulting from a research misuse of these viruses to create new augmented viruses, which exhibit increased pathogenesis as compared with native wild type viruses. Here, we propose an updated integrated view of the COVID-19 pandemic.
\r\n\r\n\tThe virus's probable origin, associated controversies, socio-economic impacts, and failures in preparedness approaches, including the lack of wildlife preservation and restoration, will be discussed. Fundamental and applied knowledge is provided to understand the SARS-CoV-2 physio-pathogenesis in human populations and in animal models to explore and/or review new or repurposed therapies as well as different vaccine strategic options.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-756-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-755-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-757-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"043fa3e57c1448a9cf8155587a8cac3d",bookSignature:"Dr. Vijay Kumar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10535.jpg",keywords:"Metagenomics, Wildlife Preservation Policy, SARS-CoV-2 Origin, Contagiousness, Pulmonary Inflammation, Neurotoxicity, Asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 Transmitters, False-Negative Diagnoses, Anti-Virals, Anti-Inflammatory Drugs, Attenuated Viruses, Vectorized Vaccines",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 13th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 12th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 2nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 1st 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Kumar is working at the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Queensland, Australia, and has more than 13 years of research experience in the field of acute bacterial infection pathogenesis, innate immunity, autoimmune diseases, and allergy in various animal models. He is the recipient of the prestigious 'Piero Periti Review Article Award”.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"63844",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"vijay-kumar",fullName:"Vijay Kumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63844/images/system/63844.jpg",biography:"Dr. Kumar has more than 13 years of research experience in the field of bacterial sepsis along with other acute bacterial infections (i.e., pneumonia), innate immunity, and inflammation. He completed his PhD degree in June 2009 from the Department of Microbiology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. Thereafter, he moved internationally and worked as a postdoctoral researcher at various hospitals and universities in Canada, that is, Sainte-Justine Hospital, University de Montreal, Montreal, Quebec (2009–2010); Queens’s University, Kingston, ON (2010–2012); and Sunnybrook Health Science Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON (2012–2013). He worked with Translational Immunology Group at Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland (2014–2015). Currently, he is working with Children Health Clinical Unit, Faculty of Medicine at University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. Dr. Kumar is the recipient of the prestigious 'Piero Periti Review Article Award” for the year 2008, awarded by the Journal of Chemotherapy in the field of immunomodulation and antimicrobials for the article entitled 'Innate Immunity in Sepsis Pathogenesis and Its Modulation: New Immunomodulatory Targets Revealed.” He is the recipient of junior research and senior research fellowship [JRF and SRF (2004–2009)] offered by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), New Delhi, India. Till now, he has published 40 publications in peer-reviewed international journals in this field. He is also serving as an invited reviewer for many international journals.",institutionString:"University of Queensland",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Queensland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"534",title:"Acute Phase Proteins as Early Non-Specific Biomarkers of Human and Veterinary Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10bdb7d515216fe45c40522e1c5ac699",slug:"acute-phase-proteins-as-early-non-specific-biomarkers-of-human-and-veterinary-diseases",bookSignature:"Francisco Veas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/534.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38691",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Veas",slug:"francisco-veas",fullName:"Francisco Veas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"234",title:"Acute Phase Proteins",subtitle:"Regulation and Functions of Acute Phase Proteins",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67e54ad18f99669c120f8db71ae779d4",slug:"acute-phase-proteins-regulation-and-functions-of-acute-phase-proteins",bookSignature:"Francisco Veas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/234.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38691",title:"Prof.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Veas",slug:"francisco-veas",fullName:"Francisco Veas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65655",title:"National Accounting Standards in Turkey",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84364",slug:"national-accounting-standards-in-turkey",body:'\nEvery country initially established its own accounting techniques to report the results of the activities of the enterprises to the relevant interest groups. Due to economic, historical, and traditional differences, there are differences between the accounting techniques. A need to standardize accounting techniques was born both locally and internationally in order to eliminate these differences, which caused negativity about the consistency and comparability of the information in the financial statements. The existence of different accounting systems for different countries can cause various difficulties for international money flow, while a Uniform Accounting System makes it easier for businesses. The existence of a single accounting system to be implemented by all enterprises increases the speed of international transactions, facilitates transparency, and supervision in financial statements and also facilitates transactions.
\nTo eliminate the differences in accounting practices; to perform uniformity in the accounting principles; to ensure that the financial statements are clear, appropriate, understandable, objective, and comparable; to prevent misappropriation of the individuals and institutions related to enterprises; to prevent wrong decisions; and to create a common language during the production and presentation of financial information, Uniform Accounting System and Uniform Chart of Accounts came into force in Turkey in 1994 and still continue today.
\nAs with financial reports prepared in accordance with the different legal and financial structures of countries, International Accounting Standards (IAS) were made compatible which resulted in an exact translation of the International Accounting Standards (IAS), and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) were entered into force as Turkish Financial Reporting Standards (TFRS) in Turkey. Public Oversight, Accounting and Auditing Standards Authority (POAASA) is authorized for the creation, publishing, and monitoring of changes of the accounting standards that are in compliance with international standards. POAASA aims to ensure the transparency, reliability, comprehensibility, comparability, and consistency of the financial statements of the firms. Currently, there are various accounting practices in Turkey, and the preference of which one to be used depends on being subject to independent audit by the enterprises. Companies whose shares are traded on the stock exchange and that are subject to independent audit apply TFRS, while Large- and Medium-Sized Enterprises which are subject to independent audit but whose shares are not traded on the stock exchange and do not apply TFRS, apply Financial Reporting Standards for Large- and Medium-Sized Enterprises (FRS for LMEs). Enterprises that are not subject to independent audit apply Uniform Accounting System.
\nUniform Chart of Accounts is used by all businesses. Despite the application of new accounting standards in Turkey, there are no new regulations regarding the needs of Uniform Chart of Accounts, which are used by the companies that perform accounting and reporting in accordance with these new standards. In Uniform Chart of Accounts, there is a need for a revision of the needs of enterprises.
\nBanks and insurance companies: private financial institutions: financial leasing, factoring, and financing companies: security mutual funds, brokerage houses, and investment trusts are subject to Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency (BRSA) legislation and have a different chart of accounts, and a revision has been performed for this chart of accounts. The mentioned company activities are accounted in accordance with the declarations of BRSA and TFRS.
\nBefore 1994, there was no standard in accounting applications and in accounting principles in Turkey. As of 1.1.1994, there has been a transition to the standard Uniform Accounting System in accordance with the Accounting System Application General Communiqué, Order No.1 published in the Official Gazette dated 26.12.1992 and numbered 21,447 (repeated). With the regulation, it was aimed to provide uniformity in all accounting applications in Turkey and to have the same operating language for all segments. Accordingly, natural and legal persons holding books according to balance sheet basis are obliged to apply the accounting procedures and principles stated in the General Communiqué on Accounting System.
\nTax regulations in Turkey may directly interfere with accounting practices and education in time. This relationship between tax regulations and accounting causes accounting in Turkey to be intended for tax and focused on tax regulations. Tax Procedure Law obligates application of the conditions required by the General Communique on Accounting System Application and Tax Procedure Law simultaneously. The arrangements made with the General Communique on Accounting System Application do not regulate or modify any matter related to tax legislation. The difference between period income and taxable income shall not be settled on balance sheets or income statements; taxable profit shall be calculated outside of financial statements.
\nUniform Accounting System is defined as the use of the same chart of accounts in accounting applications, adopting the same accounting principles, benefiting from the same accounting concepts, and providing accounting information in uniform financial statements and reports.
\nUniform Accounting System is a system that includes financial statements, charts of accounts, account codes, and similar details. This regulation related to the transition to Uniform Accounting System was made in order to facilitate and provide a sound and reliable follow-up of the results of the undertakings and enterprises belonging to real and legal persons holding books on a balance sheet basis and to ensure that the information presented to the related parties through the financial statements reflects the real situation while maintaining the consistency and comparability characteristics of the audit.
\nIt is the responsibility of the business to be in compliance with the procedures and principles seen in changes made in the name of Uniform Accounting System and organization of reports and declarations for related legislation provisions. Regulation [1]:
Full and direct delivery of accounting information to respective persons making a decision.
To compare different periods of the same enterprise with different enterprises.
Account names in the financial statements give the same meaning to all segments.
Retaining accounting term uniformity while remaining understandable.
Aims to establish trust between businesses and those concerned.
Uniformity of the financial statements to be prepared within the framework of the procedures and principles related to the regulation and presentation of financial statements in Uniform Accounting System cannot be changed. In the determination of the taxable income, companies are required to make the necessary adjustments and calculations in accordance with tax legislation. The accounting principles and procedures of the Uniform Accounting System are explained in five sections as follows:
Basic concepts of accounting
Explanation of accounting policies
Principles of financial statements
Arrangement and presentation of financial statements
Uniform account framework, chart of accounts, and descriptions of accounts. Businesses must establish their accounting systems in accordance with the uniform accounting framework and the chart of accounts. The basic concepts of accounting in Turkey are the concept of social responsibility, the concept of business entity, the going-concern concept, the concept of periodicity, the concept of monetary unit, the concept of cost basis, the concept of objectivity and documentation, the consistency concept, the full disclosure concept, the concept of prudence, the concept of materiality, and the concept of substance over form.
\nIn the Uniform Accounting System, it is not required to disclose them if they are prepared on the basis of the concepts of going-concern, consistency, and periodicity in the preparation of financial statements. However, in the case of deviation from these concepts, the disclosures of the financial statements should explain this deviation together with their reasons. All significant accounting policies included in the financial statements should be clarified and explained briefly. Financial statements should be comparable in terms of periods. If a change is made in the current period or will occur in future periods, which has a significant effect on financial policies, it should be explained together with the reasons and the effects of these changes on financial statements. The financial statements consist of the following ones [1]:
Balance sheet
Income statement
Statement of cost of sales
Fund flow statement
Cash flow statement
Statement of profit distribution
Statement of changes in equity
Providing useful information in making decisions for investors, lenders, and other interested parties; providing useful information on assessing future cash flows; providing information about assets, resources and changes in these items; and obtaining information about the business activities, these statements should be understandable, appropriate, reliable, comparable, and promptly arranged so that the information in the financial statements can be used in the best possible way by decision-makers.
\nUniform Accounting System includes real and legal persons holding books according to the balance sheet basis. However, there are institutions that need to use different accounting techniques in terms of their activities. These include bank and insurance companies; private financial institutions; financial leasing, factoring, and financing companies; security investment funds; brokerage houses; and investment trusts. These institutions are subject to BRSA’s legislation, and they are required to comply with the basic principles of accounting, explanation of accounting policies, and principles of financial statements in Uniform Accounting System. They have a different chart of accounts and do not have to fulfill other obligations.
\nBanks are required to account for their activities in accordance with the communiqués published by BRSA and within the framework of the conceptual provisions of POAASA. However, the accounting for subsidiaries, jointly controlled entities and associates and consolidated financial statements, financial statements to be disclosed to public, and procedures and principles regarding the disclosure and footnotes are determined by the communiqués issued by BRSA.
\nIn accordance with Banking Law, banks are obliged to implement a uniform order in accounting systems in accordance with the procedures and principles determined by BRSA by taking the opinion of the POAASA. Banks must be able to account for all transactions in accordance with their real nature in accordance with the accounting and Financial Reporting Standards issued by POAASA in a manner that is capable of meeting the need to obtain financial reports in an understandable, reliable, and comparable style, suitable for auditing, analysis, and interpretation. Banks are required to achieve transparency and uniformity in accounting and reporting systems, by preventing transactions from being left out of record and by accounting for all activities in a timely, healthy, and secure manner within the framework of correct and timely preparation, reporting, and publishing of financial statements showcasing financial performance and management.
\nThe “Declaration in Reference to the Uniform Chart of Accounts and Prospectus” published in 26.01.2007 and 26,415 (repeated) numbered Official Gazette based on the regulation of procedures and principles for the accounting of bank’s accounting practices and documents provides uniformity in terms of accounting and financial reporting for banks and direct acquisition of a single type of balance sheet and income statement, obtaining direct and healthy information in a verifiable and auditable manner in order to ensure supervision and monitoring and to provide the information needed for various analyses and interpretations in a standardized way.
\nThe chart of accounts is expressed as a list of accounts to be used in accounting. Uniform Chart of Accounts is a system that is organized for the systematic execution of all accounts held in an enterprise and to ensure that the same events are always recorded in the same accounts.
\nIn Turkey, Uniform Chart of Accounts mentioned in the Accounting System Application General Communiqué, Order No.1 published in the Official Gazette dated 26.12.1992 and numbered 21,447 (repeated) became a necessity for all businesses and accounting activities as of 01.01.1994. Thus, it is aimed to provide unity in accounting practices in enterprises. Uniform Chart of Accounts is a scale that shows the accounts of the activities of the enterprises, and the enterprises comply with the chart of accounts and transfer the same type of documents to the accounting records and financial statements according to the same chart of accounts and the same accounting system. The purpose of the Uniform Chart of Accounts is to use the same chart of accounts for companies holding books on the balance sheet basis and to include the economic events occurring in enterprises in the same accounts within the framework of the same systems and principles. Uniform Account Chart framework [1] is as follows:
Current assets
Noncurrent assets
Short-term liabilities
Long-term liabilities
Equity
Income statement accounts
Cost accounting accounts
Free
Off-balance sheet accounts
Uniform Chart of Accounts is divided into nine account classes, from 1 to 9. Likewise, each account class is divided into ten account groups, ranging from 0 to 9. There are a total of ten main accounts in each account group, from 0 to 9. The main accounts are given three-digit numbers. For instance; 1 Current assets (account class), 10 Cash and Cash Equivalents (account group), 100 Cash (main account). In the Uniform Chart of Accounts coding, various code systems are used while numbering the accounts. Account codes make it easy to distinguish between account groups and accounts.
\nAccording to the Uniform Accounting System, enterprises have to establish their accounting systems in accordance with the uniform accounting framework and chart of accounts. Businesses plan their accounts in advance and make a list of them. With the introduction of new standards in Turkey, there was a need for new account codes. There are a number of problems related to the definition of new account codes due to new applications of the Uniform Chart of Accounts related to the application of TFRS and FRS for LMEs such as account of investment property and account of qualified assets held for sale purpose. Therefore, a serious review and revision is needed.
\nThe draft chart of account has been drawn up by POAASA that will enable the companies to establish their accounting systems so that they can prepare their financial statements. In the drafting of the chart of account, account groups and accounts have added to ensure that all companies have access to financial statement data directly. This draft chart of account was submitted to the public on 25.12.2018. After taking the comments of the public and related institutions and organizations, the final version of the new chart of account will be given. These accounts have added in the draft chart of account [2]:
Financial investments whose fair value difference is measured at amortized cost by financial investments reflected in other comprehensive incomes (accounts 111, 112, 201, and 202)
Financial assets from ongoing construction (undertaking), project or service contracts, and obligations arising from these contracts and construction works performed in advance (groups 14 and 24 with the exception of accounts 142 and 242 and groups 34 and 44)
Live assets and gains and losses related to them (account numbers 17 and 27 and account numbers 643 and 653)
Liabilities related to noncurrent assets classified for sale and groupings classified as held for sale (account numbers 196–199 and account numbers 396–399)
Investment properties and related income and expenses (accounts numbers 245–249 and account numbers 647 and 657)
Deferred tax assets and liabilities and deferred tax income and expense effects (account numbers 289 and 489 and account numbers 692 and 696)
The effect of mergers involving enterprises or enterprises subject to joint control (account number 516)
Income and expenses accumulated in shareholders’ equity (groups 55 and 56)
Other comprehensive income and expenses for the period (groups 80, 81, 82, and 83)
Income and expenses relating to discontinued operations and taxes on these income and expenses (accounts 684 and 697)
Banks and leasing and factoring companies have a Uniform Chart of Accounts different from the other entities due to the different types of activities and operations of the financing companies. The operations of such institutions are recorded by using Bank Uniform Chart of Accounts that is recognized under the provisions of the Banks Association of Turkey. Banks are subject to the Bank Uniform Chart of Accounts and the regulatory authority, BRSA. Bank Uniform Chart of Accounts consists of the following groups [3]:
Return values
Credits
Investment values and other assets
Deposits and other foreign resources
Equity
Interest income
Interest expenses
Noninterest income
Noninterest expenses
Off-balance sheet accounts
The accounts in each group are divided into two as Turkish currency and foreign currency. The foreign currency-denominated accounts are the accounts in which the amounts arising from the foreign currency transactions of the bank are recorded. Foreign currency balances in these accounts are valued at the end of the period and transferred to related accounts. Foreign currency interest, commissions, and income received from foreign currency accounts and transactions are translated into Turkish Lira at the exchange rates prevailing at the transaction date and recorded in the related foreign currency profit/loss accounts. Even if the revenues are collected in Turkish currency instead of foreign currency, they are recorded in the related foreign currency profit and loss accounts. In the Uniform Chart of Accounts, the accounts working for Turkish Lira and foreign currency transactions are separated at the general ledger level. If the last digit of the general ledger accounts is an even number, then it is in Turkish Liras, and if the last digit is an odd number, then it indicates a foreign currency account.
\nA new account cannot be opened in the book at a new level without the permission of the BRSA. For the accounts that are opened at the level of general ledger and do not have any subaccounts, banks can open auxiliary, sub-, and subordinate accounts if needed. If there is no special account in which to record a transaction, a special account must be opened with permission from the BRSA for such transactions.
\nIn the POAASA’s decision dated 13.09.2018 numbered (03/161), TFRS are redefined. They cover the standards published under the names of TAS, TFRS, TAS Interpretation, and TFRS Interpretation [4].
\nThe financial statements are prepared and presented by their preparers across the globe for their users. There are some differences due to the use of different financial statements by different countries during the creation of national regulations for social, economic, and legal reasons. The efforts of the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) to form a common language in the process of globalization are in question. IASB aims to reduce the differences by harmonizing the rules and accounting standards and application procedures for the preparation and presentation of financial statements.
\nAs the common language used by businesses in terms of financial reporting, IFRS are the standard set which directs financial reporting in the world and are formed by the IASB that is the authority for financial reporting in terms of the level of implementation and adoption by the world. The purpose of the IFRS is to increase international investments and trade through a comparable, reliable, understandable, and transparent presentation of financial statements. TAS/TFRS and TAS/TFRS Interpretations are literal translations into the International Accounting Standards/International Financial Reporting Standards/International Financial Reporting Interpretation Committee (IAS/IFRS/IFRIC) as issued by the IASB.
\nA set of financial statements prepared under the TFRS [5] are as follows:
Statement of financial position.
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive incomes.
Statement of cash flows.
Statement of changes in equity.
Financial statements are composed of footnotes.
TFRS are prepared to meet the needs of the users of the securities and their financial statements.
\nThe accounting records of companies of the specified nature and scale determined by the decision of the Council of Ministers which was formed around the decision of the POAASA following 01.01.2013 continue to be done in accordance with Tax Procedure Law with compatibility to TFRS [6].
\nThe publication of TAS/TFRS does not mean that Uniform Accounting System has completed its function, but rather increases its importance in order to ensure their healthy implementation, comparability, and reliability [7].
\nWith the application of TAS/TFRS, there are some changes in the format and classification of the financial statements in the Uniform Accounting System which have been compulsory since 1994, and the formal structure is changing. The importance of information is emphasized in the standards, and it is required to present important information in a truthful manner. TAS/TFRS also made significant changes in the valuation of balance sheet items and income statement items. These changes in measurement and valuation significantly affect the reported amounts of items in financial statements [8].
\nIn the POAASA’s decision dated 13.09.2018 and numbered (03/161), TAS are redefined. TAS cover TFRS mentioned above and FRS for LMEs and other standards determined by the agency. TAS of the decision for determining the scope of application is detailed below [4]:
Institutions that require TFRS to be used in the preparation of their individual and consolidated financial statements: (A)—(i) Joint stock companies traded on the stock exchange; (ii) Investment institutions; (iii) Collective investment institutions; (iv) Portfolio management organizations; (v) Mortgage financing institutions; (vi) Housing finance and asset financing funds; (vii) Asset leasing companies; (viii) Central clearing houses; (ix) Central lending organizations; (x) Data storage organizations; and (xi) Capital market instruments that are not traded on the stock exchange, but which provide at least two of the three criteria from publicly traded companies in the capital market: (a) Total of 15 million and more Turkish Lira; (b) Annual net sales revenue of 20 million and more Turkish Liras; (c) Number of employees 50 and above. (B)—Businesses subject to the regulation and supervision of the BRSA in accordance with Banking Law—(i) Banks; (ii) Financial leasing companies; (iii) Factoring companies; (iv) Financing companies; (v) Asset management companies; (vi) Rating agencies; (vii) Financial holding companies; (viii) Companies holding financial holding companies; and (ix) Payment agencies. (C)—Insurance, reinsurance, and pension companies. (D)—Corporations, which are allowed to operate in Borsa Istanbul, joint stock companies.
Subject to independent audit and the implementation of FRS for LMEs in the preparation of individual and consolidated financial statements of institutions, establishments, and enterprises other than the above; however, it will be able to implement the TFRS upon request of the institutions, organizations, and enterprises in question.
TFRS is the basis of the policy. It does not give businesses the chance to use the account name according to their needs. In the principle-based approach, only the account framework is determined, and the chart of accounts is not compulsory. Each business determines its own chart of accounts.
\nIFRS is divided into two as IFRS full set and SME sets in the world and in Turkey, although TFRS for SMEs that was in line with IFRS for SMEs was published in 2010 in the official gazette, but there has been no chance to implement it. Later, FRS for LMEs was issued by POAASA instead of the TFRS for SMEs. FRS for LMEs, entered into force on the date of publication, to be applied in the accounting periods beginning on or after 01.01.2018. It consists of 27 chapters and sets out the accounting principles for all accounting transactions that the companies may encounter in general.
\nThe purpose of the IASB is to prepare a separate standard for SMEs as a set of accounting principles derived from IFRS, which will be used by small, simplified entities whose stocks are not listed on the stock exchange. IASB has defined IFRS for SMEs as a set of simple and simplified Financial Reporting Standards derived from IFRS that will be used by nonpublic entities [9].
\nFRS for LMEs was issued by replacing TFRS for SMEs with certain additions. This standard includes interest costs, fair value application, receivables and asset provisions, depreciation, severance pay, receivable and debt aging, inflation adjustment, and consolidation matters. It is essential that the fair value application and active registered fixed assets are valued. This issue has been added to FRS for LMEs while it was not included in TFRS for SMEs.
\nThe purpose of FRS for LMEs is to provide financial statements that are in compliance with financial information needs. Four financial statements are required to be prepared in the FRS for LMEs [10]:
Statement of financial position
Statement of Profit or loss
Statement of changes in equity
Statement of cash flows
The objectives of the FRS for LMEs are defined as follows:
Real
Fits financial information requirements
Providing the preparation of comparable financial statements
Since the FRS for LMEs has set a standard for the determination of commercial profit in Turkey and can be applied more easily than TFRS, it will contribute to a clearer understanding and proper implementation of the full set of standards. Thus, the main task of accounting, real activity result reporting, real situation detection, planning, and control will be available to produce information, and commercial purposes to use financial data will be become a habit [11].
\nFRS for LMEs is an important development in terms of accounting practices in Turkey. It is a financial reporting standard that enables the financial statements of the enterprises that are subject to independent audit and are not obliged to be accountable to the public and do not prefer to apply TFRS, to be understood by investors and lenders with their fair presentation, needed for financial information, and provides comparability of financial statements [12].
\nFRS for LMEs prepared by POAASA has been prepared in a simpler language than TAS/TFRS, avoiding the details that are not necessary for large- and medium-sized enterprises and addressing the basic principles of related subjects only [13].
\nThe primary objective of the Accounting System Application General Communiqué issued based on the Tax Procedure Law is to show the financial position of the taxpayers against tax. FRS for LMEs is subject to independent audit and replaces the Accounting System Application General Communiqué and Supplementary Issues in entities not applying TFRS. The financial reporting framework that will be the basis for the preparation of the financial statements of the companies which are subject to independent audit and which will not be subject to TFRS in accordance with the Turkish Commercial Code; the base financial report must be FRS for LMEs.
\nIn the POAASA’s decision dated 13.09.2018 and numbered (03/161), FRS for LMEs are redefined. FRS for LMEs is a financial reporting framework that is subject to independent audit and is valid for financial statements presented to general assemblies of enterprises that do not apply the TFRS. It has been decided that may apply FRS for LMEs in the preparation of the individual and consolidated financial statements of the institutions, establishments, and enterprises other than those which are obliged to apply TFRS. However, it has been decided that such institutions, organizations, and enterprises may apply TFRS on demand [4].
\nAccounting shows the financial structure of the enterprise and the results of its economic activities. Accounting practices constitute the source of accounting practices including basic accounting concepts, accounting principles, and accounting policies. Accounting standards is a set of rules that are formed in order to enable the comparison of the information generated in the accounting information system as a result of the business activities with confidence in accordance with the reality without considering the distinction of events of the same nature.
\nThe subject of accounting is the financial statements and reports to be prepared for public disclosure. Therefore, the concept of public disclosure is in a sense also the purpose of generally accepted accounting standards. In order to meet the increasing need for trust in an environment of global competition, the rapid increase of standardization movements has also emerged in the accounting field.
\nWorks aiming for standardization of both national and international dimensions of accounting are implemented in Turkey. Uniform Accounting System which has been in use in Turkey for a long period of time is a topic of discussion. However, as a result of this change, the Turkish translations of IAS/IFRS are in use as TAS/TFRS. TAS and TFRS-applicable Financial Reporting Standards also continues to use the Uniform Accounting System which has been applied for a long time. In addition, the financial reporting standard has been enacted for large- and medium-sized enterprises. Despite the fact that Full Set TAS/TFRS is translated into Turkish, FRS for LMEs has been put into effect instead of IFRS for SMEs because it is a closer match. Companies that are subject to independent auditing and that do not apply TFRS are required to apply FRS for LMEs in the presentation of their consolidated financial statements.
\nInternational Accounting Standards have emerged as a result of the harmonization of financial reports prepared according to the standards determined by the legal or financial structures of different countries in order to enable users to compare the same criteria for information users in different countries. The consolidated financial statements of companies whose stock is traded in the stock exchange and that are subject to independent auditing must be prepared in accordance with TFRS.
\nBanks, insurance, reinsurance and pension companies, factoring companies, finance companies, financial leasing companies, and asset management companies are required to implement TFRS and have their own chart of accounts.
\nFRS for LMEs is applied by companies subject to independent audits but do not apply TFRS and provides comparable financial information. The purpose of FRS for LMEs is to provide financial statements that are in compliance with financial information needs. The companies that are not subject to independent audits are generally required to prepare their financial statements in accordance with Uniform Accounting System.
The application of the Accounting System Application General Communiqué and its annexed Uniform Chart of Accounts as prescribed by the Tax Procedure Law is still in progress. The combination of all these applications may cause confusion in some cases. In addition, it is necessary to review Uniform Chart of Accounts as soon as possible to define and reorganize the account codes that businesses need due to new applications.
\nA pandemic presents a special kind of health crisis that requires “collective responsibility” together with changes in communication techniques ([1], p. 515). Previous research has confirmed that communication during a health crisis is crucial [2] in order to create awareness for the existence of a health threat [3, 4]. Hence, health risk messages disseminated during the crisis should be both instructing and adjusting, informing the public of which precautionary measures to take to reduce physical harm and the virus from spreading, while also providing individuals with guidance as to how to deal with the psychological threats of the crisis [5].
\nIn the event of a pandemic, the government becomes a key actor in managing the (health) crisis [6, 7]. Conditioned by high degrees of trust, messages distributed on part of the government can drive the general population to comply with its recommended actions [8, 9, 10, 11]. This is the case, since health messages for which the government is the identified source are perceived as both credible and relevant [7, 12], for individuals are convinced that the government can control the crisis [13]. This is in line with previous research, which suggests that controllability and responsibility for the health threat influence the public’s risk perceptions and, consequently, responses to these risks [14].
\nThe primary aim of this chapter is to present some guidelines for effective health risk message design, drawing input from established crisis communication literature in general and some recent studies on COVID-19 risk communication in particular. To this end, recommendations regarding message presentation and design will be presented, before limitations and directions for future research are addressed.
\nPandemics qualify as a form of health crisis [1]. As crises present situations for which individuals are neither prepared nor possess knowledge of how to deal with the uncertain circumstances [15], they actively seek support and guidance [16, 17]. In order to mobilize the affected public as a partner [18, 19], individuals’ need for information must be satisfied. Useful information is usually based on scientific facts. Following the Office and Science and Technology [20], science communication comprises all communication activities between different stakeholder groups, and, as in the case of a health crisis, takes place between “the government and the public”. In line with Burns et al. [21], one of the many objectives of science communication is to raise awareness for and create familiarity with new aspects of science. Consisting of three separate processes – i.e. communication, consultation and participation [22] – science communication needs to be designed strategically to fill existing (knowledge) gaps and present information in an appealing manner [23]. Only this way, the public’s understanding of science can be assured [21]1.
\nMedia messages afford individuals with instruction and, thus, present respondents’ primary sources of information in crises [26, 27, 28]. Message credibility and trust is elevated, if the government is the identified source [12, 29], highlighting its central role in the crisis management process [6, 7]. On the one hand, it can help sensitize people for the risks associated with the crisis and, on the other hand, encourage them to adopt preventive measures [30]. For this reason, governmental officials are advised to invest in “well-coordinated health communications” to assist individuals in managing their daily lives in times of upheaval [31]. Previous studies have investigated how the public responds to a government’s overall health risk communication, for instance during the avian influenza [12], SARS [32], or Ebola [33]. Findings confirm that the government is perceived to be in the position to mitigate potential health risks [13].
\nIn the event of a crisis, governments are advised to engage in intensified communication [9, 10]. In order to build community trust and engagement, communication must be open and transparent, as well as scientifically based in order to facilitate the public’s preparedness to deal with the health threat [9, 16, 34]. This call seems to be expressive of recent social developments towards a knowledge or information society [35]. Thereby, knowledge (re)production centers on documented scientific knowledge (e.g., scientific findings), which no longer solely has its origin in natural sciences but is also based on social sciences [29]. Moreover, this kind of knowledge is increasingly discussed in the media. While science communication is concerned with raising awareness for and creating familiarity with new aspects of science (as part of a “Public Understanding of Science” and “Public Awareness of Science”, [24, 25]), messages disseminated during any (health) crisis need to be designed strategically to present information in an appealing manner in order to draw respondents to (scientific) message content [21].
\nEffective risk communication is a requirement in case of health emergencies and crises [2] and can assist the public in managing the crisis [36]. Health crises, including epidemics and pandemics, do not present an exception to this trend. For this reason, governments throughout the world heavily depend on health campaigns, described as “a systematic effort to change health behaviors (or attitudes and beliefs about health and/or social and environmental conditions that mediate health behaviors) within a target population of people who are at risk for a health problem or problems” [37]. Health messages by the government are also known as Public Service Announcements (PSAs, [38]). Contrary to traditional advertising messages, these materials set out to change individual behaviors. For this reason, they have been commonly used in health crises [39].
\nWith PSAs appealing to individuals to change their behaviors and instructing them on how to achieve these proposed behavioral changes, they are in line with health campaigns’ three communicative objectives: awareness, instruction or persuasion [37, 40]. In case of a health crisis, health campaigns primarily intend to raise awareness for the severity of the threat amongst the affected population and offer instruction to individuals on how to utilize self-protective measures [41, 42]. As such, PSAs appeal to individuals’ self-efficacy [16, 43, 44]. For instance, health messages spread during the H1N1 influenza emphasized the need to take up hygiene measures, such as “hand washing, sanitizer use, covering of coughs and sneezes, and staying at home” ([16]: p. 5). Similar message content was also employed as part of national COVID-19 health campaigns.
\nAlbeit different campaign themes exist, amongst them community building [16], messages typically center on risk reduction strategies [5, 30]. Particularly during health emergencies, information on which preventive measures should be taken is valuable [45]. These measures, for instance, could be nonpharmaceutical interventions (NPIs), which are nation-wide actions proposed by the government to resolve the health crisis [31]. NPIs are useful in controlling the pandemic and are, thus, often labeled “community mitigation strategies”. With measures often concerning “disruptive actions” ([44], p. S2), individuals are forced to reconfigure their daily lives and routines [46]. For this reason, health risk messages must be carefully designed to prevent controversial arguments and negative emotions from surfacing [19, 47, 48].
\nCampaigns advocating NPIs rely on media messages to reach diverse publics in crisis situations [49]. While an increasing amount of research is available on how health messages are used to create awareness amongst the population during risk situations [33, 50, 51, 52, 53]. In this chapter we review articles pertaining to health risk message design and focus on the special case of pandemics and emerging infectious diseases [8].
\nThe purpose of this paper is to present the cumulated results of an excessive literature review, looking at propositions for and examples of health risk messages disseminated during previous epidemics and pandemics, as well as during COVID-19. Hence, this review will only include articles from the field of risk communication and health communication which were released between 2000 and 2020, even though parallels to messages addressing ongoing pandemics, such as HIV/AIDS and Cholera, can be found.
\nWe used keywords such as risk, health risk, risk communication, health communication, epidemic, pandemic and a combination thereof to compose our sample. With this scope in mind, we conducted a search using national library databases. We covered the major journals in strategic communication, risk communication, and health communication, such as
With the above considerations we have now summed up some recommendations for designing health risk messages. For government officials, it is now of great interest to learn more about how health risk messages can be designed to benefit not only their own agenda, but also whole populations affected by crisis situations. After reviewing relevant (and recent) literature, it becomes obvious that scholars have devoted their research to studying communication during crisis situations in detail. In the following, several recommendations for designing and drafting health risk messages will be presented.
\nThe availability of timely and transparent information allows the public to derive at a realistic assessment of the health threat [3, 4, 54]. Building on previous research, messages disseminated in times of disruption should “[e]mphasize the rationale and importance of adherence to public health measures that some people may consider intrusive (e.g., quarantine)” (US Department of Health and Human Services 2008). Providing a solid reasoning is seen as paramount, given that in recent years, individuals trust in the validity of scientific findings has decreased considerably [55]. Hence, PSAs must address the necessity for specific crisis mitigation strategies and actions.
\nExperts have determined that ensuring public access to information – and thus engaging in a process of constant communication – is seen as essential in crisis situations [56]. Thereby, different forms of information need to be distinguished: instructing information, preventive information, and reactive information [57]. Instructing information covers three areas: information on the pandemic, the public’s primary needs, and precautionary measures [57]. Through preventive information, public opinion regarding the crisis is sensitized, whilst through reactive information, the affected population is informed about the crisis progression, and a potential panic and the spread of rumors can be prevented [1].
Austrian PSAs advising grandparents to refrain from visiting their grandchildren (left) and social distancing (right). (Source:
In the process of encouraging individuals to follow the proposed preventive actions [58, 59, 60], information should be presented in a straight-forward manner [16] and in “one voice”. Moreover, messages should use simple language [61], and be consistent in terms of message content, as inconsistency can lead to confusion and undesired health outcomes: “A well-crafted national message [has] the potential to build unity around the goal of defeating the virus through behavior change, preferably with clear, unambiguous recommendations of what actions to take” ([61], 1736).
Austrian PSAs featuring the baby elephant. (Source:
According to Fishbein and Ajzen [62], effective communication should stress which behaviors have to be changed, further providing the public with clear instruction as to how this change can be obtained [3]. Therefore, message should appeal to individuals’ self-efficacy [63, 64]. Self-efficacy is activated if identification with message content is high [43, 44]. Clear communication can boost individual self-efficacy and help mitigate the risks associated with the health threat [61]. If individuals feel empowered, this can then improve the relationship between the public and the government lastingly [10].
Australian PSAs presenting risk mitigation strategies. (Source:
As individual behavior is influenced by social norms, i.e. how people in one’s immediate environment react [66], health communication messages should promote these norms [29, 39], which can induce behavioral change. Besides the relevance of collective norms2 [67], norms that require personal investment (e.g., social distancing, personal hygiene) are presumed to predict behavioral intentions even more strongly [68].
Prosocial Appeal as part of #MaskUpAmerica. (Source:
The risks associated with any crisis have been renowned to elicit negative emotions in individuals [69], further influencing their risk perceptions [70, 71, 72]. Therefore, the negative emotions associated with the pandemic should be counterbalanced with positive emotional appeals [29, 73]. This, for instance, can be achieved through “prosocial motivation” or a collective orientation, in the course of which the positive impact of a certain behavior on the community elicits hope in recipients [74, 75]. Likewise, higher intentions to comply with proposed behaviors can be achieved if prosocial appeals are used [76].
Austrian PSAs emphasizing prosocial and collective action, such as staying at home if feeling unwell (left) and shopping for at risk groups (right). (Source:
Besides stressing the necessity for engaging in selected NPIs, messages also must point out why it is essential to do so [3, 77]. This builds upon previous research, which has demonstrated that increased efficacy levels are reliable in predicting individual behavior [78]. One potential way, for instance, could be to increase the perceived relevance of message content or the similarity to the source, which have proven successful in mitigating negative message consequences [79, 80, 81], e.g., the spread of the virus.
\nIndividuals’ risk perceptions usually incorporate emotional aspects [53] that have been found to drive individuals to take up protective behaviors in crisis situations [82, 83, 84]. Hence, the use of (positive) emotion has been found to be conducive to behavioral change [85], also in times of crisis, where emotions have been found to drive (health) risk message reception, e.g., by impacting individuals’ willingness and motivation to take up precautionary measures (e.g., [86, 87, 88, 89]).
#MaskUpAmerica featuring Everyday Heroes. (Source:
While some audiences seek out facts and scientific information, others are more drawn to emotional and personalized message content [37]. Thereby, message appeals describe promotional cues that are used to drive both recipients’ interest and attention [90]. While i
Health risk communication’s reliance on an emotional (visual) presentation might stem from the fact that visuals drive risk perceptions more than factual information [96, 97]. In case of strong emotional reactions, individuals’ likelihood to ignore factual information is increased [98, 99]. Therefore, the use of pictures is recommended and can increase the likelihood of a message receiving fixation [100].
Austrian PSAs featuring individuals in their domestic settings. (Source:
As pandemics evoke negative emotional responses – first and foremost, fear [29] - that affect whole populations, crisis communication itself should not only center on people [101] but also familiarize them with proper behavior, e.g., by featuring role models [102, 103]. If identification is high, people are driven into compliance, which can positively effect crisis management [104, 105]).
Besides medical experts or celebrities [39], a number of studies has highlighted the importance of featuring nonpolitical sources, whose statements are perceived as credible and trustworthy [77, 106, 107]. For instance, people have been found to easily relate to individuals who are similar to them (i.e. “community ambassadors”; [16]). Previous research has been able to demonstrate that similarity with the testimonial featured in a promotional or risk message can be a useful tool to increase message effectiveness [108, 109], as well as message credibility and acceptance [110]. As they resemble real people, individuals are also more likely to follow their lead and take up proposed behaviors [111].
Messages also must be reflective of individuals’ respective health literacy levels3 [48, 72, 114]. Numerous studies determined individual’s health literacy is rather low [48, 114, 115, 116]. “Barriers that keep the people we want to become more scientifically literate from understanding what we do [is that] they do not know the terminology”. For this reason, messages must ensure that people do not feel overwhelmed with the information they are presented with.
While low health literacy levels can result in unintended health outcomes [51], messages low in complexity can enhance both individuals’ message processing and willingness to act on the recommendations presented therein [51]. More complex messages, however challenge individuals as they require more elaborate health literacy skills for individuals to not only understand the message, but also align message content with existing knowledge [117].
Austrian PSAs with strong visuals but low in complexity. (Source:
Health campaigns have been found to increasingly rely on videos [118], which present information in dual form, meaning in both textual and visual form. In the first instance, facts can be both presented in written and auditory form (voiceover or narration) and might be supported by illustrations and pictograms (e.g., [51]). Narration particularly caters to individuals with low health literacy levels, who can process spoken information more readily than written information [119]. Personal stories that are directly linked to the health-cause and narrated by testimonials, can increase identification and message impact [108, 110]. Videos’ dual-mode presentation information processing and message recall [120, 121].
Austrian PSAs utilizing information and pictograms. (Source:
If individuals act upon the proposed actions by the government depends on the impact – both in economic and social terms – associated with the health risk [18, 44], as well as their ability to make sense of the information they are presented with [122]. Governments are, therefore, advised to tailor their communications to individual information needs [123, 124, 125].
According to previous research, individual message preferences vary, and different message formats are preferred [16, 54]. For this reason, messages must be provided where individuals are likely to encounter them [126, 127], taking generational differences and media preferences into consideration.
If crisis strikes, government officials are called upon to act quickly and engage in increased communication [6, 7]. The present study reviewed some existing literature and combined it with insights from health communication, in an attempt to provide some recommendations for effective COVID-19 health risk message design. This is crucial, for individuals’ risk perceptions have been found to predict their likelihood of engaging in preventive behaviors, also in the case of pandemics [82] and in the case of emerging infectious diseases (EID) [8].
\nAt any time during the crisis, message complexity should be reduced [122, 128]), requiring lesser cognitive capacities on behalf of individuals to process message [51]. This is specifically important, if scientific evidence is presented. Only if message match the audience’s cognitive capacities, individuals can play an active role in managing health risks. Moreover, visual (affective) stimuli can elicit emotions in individuals, and enhance message acceptance and learning, specifically if new information is presented [121].
\nCommunication strategies are further recommended to take audiences’ attitudes and inherent needs for comprehensive and instructional information – which appeals to their self-efficacy [43] – into account [129]. Hence, government officials are advised to optimize message presentation, especially when the problem or risk addressed in this message affects whole populations. As such, it is important to increase both the identification with and the relevance of message content, evoking individuals into compliance. In order to increase identification and create familiarity with proper crisis behavior, communication should center on the affected population [18, 80, 104] and feature community members [43]. In order to increase message comprehensibility, information needs to be presented in simple language and in a straight-forward-manner, while also reducing message complexity [100, 120], e.g., through the inclusion of visuals. If message content is too complex, effectiveness can be enhanced by presenting information in dual form, i.e. by combining visual/auditory and textual elements [51]. For instance, narration can increase a message’s persuasive impact [130], while also aiding respondents’ identification with the message [131]. A dual-more presentation can thus help overcome respondents’ potential resistance to message content [132], while also favoring those with low health literacy rates – a problem, that still challenges health communication in the age of COVID-19 [48, 114].
\nThere are several limitations to the list of recommendations presented herein. Even though the study is based on a comprehensive literature review, it only focused on research articles from the field of strategic communication and health communication. Moreover, the national campaign examples only offer insights into the communication strategies utilized by the German, Austrian, U.S. American (New York) and Australian government. PSAs might be conceptualized differently in other parts of the world. Future research should also emphasize how campaign messages have changed as the COVID-19 pandemic progressed.
\nThe author acknowledges the financial support by the University of Klagenfurt.
\nThese Terms and Conditions outline the rules and regulations pertaining to the use of IntechOpen’s website www.intechopen.com and all the subdomains owned by IntechOpen located at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, United Kingdom.
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
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