\r\n\texplores a comprehensive overview of the recent theories on flow, transport, industrial applications and processes in porous media. It also extensively discusses sophisticated porous media models which can be used to improve the modeling in practical applications.
\r\n
\r\n\tFeaturing contributions from renowned experts in their respective fields, this book,
\r\n
\r\n\tDescribes the general characteristics of Modelling and Mechanics in Porous Media, such as multiscale modeling of porous media, two-phase flow, and compressible porous media.
\r\n
\r\n\tCovers heat and mass transfer of nanofluids as well as thermal transport in porous media, including natural/forced convection, double-diffusive convection, heat transfer enhancement using nanofluids. \r\n\tAddresses geological applications in porous media, Transport in Porous media in natural resources and applications in the environment. \r\n\tDiscusses relevant work experimental work or numerical techniques wherever applicable. \r\n\tPresents innovative approaches to applying existing porous media technologies to bio-science, biotechnology and biomedical applications. \r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-712-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-711-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-722-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"df79c29efe12a76f9250f23370bb8e37",bookSignature:"Dr. Vallampati Ramachandra Prasad",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10284.jpg",keywords:"Darcy Law and Its Extension, Multiscale Modelling of Porous Media and Systems, Multiscale Modeling in Porous Media, Transport Phenomena in Micro Nanoporous Media, Applications in Energy, Applications in Environment, Experimental Challenges in Geological Applications, Thermal Transport in Porous Media, Heat and Mass Transfer in Nanofluids in Porous Media, Biotechnological and Biomedical Applications, Using Porous Media Theory to Biological Applications, Mathematical Models in Heat and Mass Transfer for Biological Applications",numberOfDownloads:117,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 27th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 12th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Prasad has made fundamental contributions in magnetic fluid dynamics, thermal radiation heat transfer, fluid modeling, micropolar non-Newtonian hydrodynamics, magnetic induction flows,\r\nviscoelastic liquid flows, porous media and boundary flow and authored over 100 journal articles in these areas, he has published six books on radiation heat transfer, thermo-diffusion, and diffusion-thermo effects on the boundary layer flow, and Viscoelastic flows, as well.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"146601",title:"Dr.",name:"Vallampati",middleName:null,surname:"Ramachandra Prasad",slug:"vallampati-ramachandra-prasad",fullName:"Vallampati Ramachandra Prasad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/146601/images/system/146601.jpg",biography:"Prof. V. Ramachandra Prasad is currently working as a Professor\nin the Mathematics Department, School Advanced Sciences,\nVellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India. He\nhas 25 years of teaching experience and has authored more than\n100 publications in the area of fluid dynamics and heat transfer.\nOver the past decade he has worked in the areas of multi-physical\nfluid dynamics and numerical simulation. His work has investigated\ncomplex phenomena of interest in mechanical engineering, applied mathematics,\nchemical engineering, and material processing. He has made fundamental\ncontributions in magnetic fluid dynamics, thermal radiation heat transfer, fluid\nmodeling, micro polar non-Newtonian hydrodynamics, magnetic induction flows,\nviscoelastic liquid flows, porous media, and boundary flows. He has authored over\n100 journal articles in these areas and also numerous conference presentations. He\nhas published six books on radiation heat transfer, thermo-diffusion and diffusion-thermo\neffects on boundary layer flows, and Viscoelastic flows. More recent\nwork has involved non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, fluid particle suspensions, and\nlid driven cavities. The numerical methods he has used are the finite difference\nmethod, finite element method, network simulation methods, and finite volume\ncodes. I have worked in collaboration with US, Indian, Spanish, British, and Taiwanese\nresearchers. He is working as reviewer for over 100 national and\ninternational journals. 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1. Introduction
Recent advances in neuroimaging and neurosurgical techniques provide a growing body of evidence suggesting that deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a powerful and safe therapeutic option for medically intractable Parkinson’s disease (PD). For more than half a century, the thalamic ventrolateral (VL) nucleus has been an anatomical target for stereotaxy in treating movement disorders that include PD. It plays a pivotal role in the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical circuit that is associated with motor brain functions. The entire output of the basal ganglia is directed to the motor cortex via the VL nucleus where the cerebellar and pallidal afferents terminate predominantly in the ventralis intermedius (Vim) nucleus and ventralis oralis (Vo) nucleus, respectively. In accordance with the general concept that the cerebellothalamic fiber connections participate in tremor genesis, thalamic Vim DBS is now used in the treatment of a wide variety of tremor subtypes with different etiologies. Indeed, thalamic Vim DBS can exert a striking therapeutic impact on tremor-dominant PD that exhibits better clinical prognoses and slower disease progression with less cognitive decline as compared to akinesia/rigidity-dominant PD. In patients with tremor-dominant PD, tremor suppression can be achieved irrespective of age, disease duration, or baseline disease severity. Based on recent advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of tremor-dominant PD, this review introduces the current use of thalamic Vim stimulation in treating patients with PD.
2. Surgical anatomy
The thalamic VL nucleus comprises 2 major functional territories [1-3]. Neurons in the VL thalamus that respond to voluntary movements are located largely within the Vo [4-6], and neurons that respond to kinesthetic/passive movements about a joint are mainly contained within the Vim [5, 7]. The pallidothalamic inhibitory afferents terminate preferentially in the ipsilateral Vo nucleus, with an anterior-to-posterior gradient of terminal densities through the VL nucleus. In contrast, the cerebellothalamic excitatory afferents terminate predominantly in the contralateral Vim nucleus, creating a posterior-to-anterior gradient of terminal densities through the VL nucleus [8-10]. Moreover, a somatotopic arrangement, i.e., a medial-to-lateral distribution of facial-, forelimb-, and hindlimb-receptive fields, also exists in the VL thalamic nucleus [11-14].
The cerebellothalamic pathway plays a role in the fine spatial and temporal tuning of coordinated movements, as well as in the learning and retention of new motor skills. Thus, functional interference might also be achieved in deep cerebellar nuclei and affect activities in the striatum and cerebral cortices via the VL nucleus, thereby affecting ongoing and intended movements [15-17].
3. Pathophysiology of parkinsonian tremor
The clinical heterogeneity of PD is well recognized, and patients can often be divided into tremor-dominant and akinesia/rigidity-dominant subgroups. Accumulating evidence suggests that akinesia/rigidity and tremor may be associated with functional impairments of different motor circuits. Striatal dopamine depletion and dysfunction of the basal ganglia seem to be more important in akinesia/rigidity than in tremor. It is generally thought that tremor is primarily related to the cerebello-thalamo-cortical pathway, while akinesia/rigidity is rooted in the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical pathway. Recent results from clinicopathological, electrophysiological, and neuroimaging studies on patients with PD are discussed in the following sections.
3.1. Clinicopathological study
Although post-mortem studies are limited, patients with tremor-dominant PD appear to progress slowly despite a poorer therapeutic response to levodopa. A statistical analysis performed using the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) showed that the motor score for tremor is independent of the scores for other motor symptoms in patients with PD [18]. Rajput et al. [19] reported that patients with tremor-dominant PD showed slower disease progression and lower incidence of dementia than did patients with akinesia/rigidity-dominant PD.
Patients with tremor-dominant PD have milder cell loss in the substantia nigra pars compacta and in the locus coeruleus than do patients with non-tremor PD [20]. This suggests that patients with tremor-dominant PD have less dopaminergic dysfunction than do patients with non-tremor PD. On the other hand, patients with tremor-dominant PD have considerably more cell loss in the retrorubral area of the midbrain [21]. The retrorubral area could produce tremor via its dopaminergic projection to the pallidum. Further, Selikhova et al. [22] reported that patients with the non-tremor subtype had more severe cortical Lewy body pathology and were more likely to develop dementia.
3.2. Positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
SPECT using Iodine-123 fluoropropyl-carbomethoxy-3 ( [123I]FP-CIT SPECT) targets the dopamine transporter and is used to determine ongoing loss of dopaminergic neurons in patients with PD [23-25]. [123I]FP-CIT SPECT shows that patients with tremor-dominant PD had less striatal dopamine depletion than do patients with non-tremor PD [26-28].
The metabolic rate of glucose measured using (18F)fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose PET (FDG-PET) is known as a marker of integrated local synaptic activities and is sensitive to direct neuronal and synaptic damage and to the functional changes in synaptic activity distant from the primary site of pathology [29]. Using FDG-PET, Mure et al. [30] identified and validated that the PD tremor-related pattern is characterized by covarying metabolic increases in the cerebellum, motor cortex, and putamen. This network correlates specifically with clinical tremor ratings, but not with akinesia/rigidity. In patients with PD tremor, high-frequency stimulation of the Vim nucleus reduces regional metabolism and cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the ipsilateral sensorimotor cortex and contralateral dorsal cerebellar nucleus [30-33], and increases both measures in the Vim nucleus ipsilateral to the stimulation site [30, 34-37]. It should be noted that changes in CBF may not reflect the direct effects of DBS but rather may reflect sensory feedback from changes in motor activity [38].
Figure 1.
Schematic representations of the stereotactic targets for Vim-DBS on the axial (A) and sagittal (B) planes. The DBS lead implanted into the Vim nucleus is also shown in (B).
3.3. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Intrinsic blood oxygen consumption detected by fMRI is correlated with low-frequency electrical amplitude fluctuations [64]. Patients with PD show increased overall activity in networks coupled to the primary motor cortex and cerebellum, and reduced functional connections in the supplementary motor area, dorsolateral prefrontal area, and putamen [65]. A recent study with simultaneous fMRI and EMG recording shows that the basal ganglia are transiently activated at the onset of tremor episodes, whereas tremor amplitude-related activity correlates with the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit [26]. The patients with tremor-dominant PD had increased functional connectivity between the basal ganglia and the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit.
3.4. Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
PD symptoms are related to alterations of oscillatory activity within the basal ganglia. Such pathologically increased oscillations have been demonstrated at several frequencies [56, 57]. In particular, those below 70 Hz have been shown to be antikinetic [56]. More specifically, oscillations at 4 to 12 Hz have been related to the origin of tremor symptoms in patients with PD [58]. Double tremor oscillations in the β range are not coherent with simultaneously recorded tremors [59-61]. However, a strong coherence in the β range is observed in the primary motor cortex, supplementary motor cortex, premotor cortex, diencephalon, and contralateral cerebellum [58]. Interestingly, this coupling can be successfully reduced by dopamine replacement therapy [62, 63]. These data indicate that PD resting tremor is associated with synchronous oscillatory coupling in a cerebello-thalamo-cortical loop and cortical motor and sensory areas contralateral to the tremor hand [58].
3.5. Cell recordings
So-called “kinesthetic” cells receive afferent inputs from muscle spindles and respond to passive joint movements. These cells are located just anterior to the nucleus ventralis caudalis (VC), which receives tactile sensory inputs [39, 40]. Percheron et al. [8] postulated that the kinesthetic zone is located in the latero-ventral part of the Vim nucleus, a region that sends a majority of its axons to the motor cortex. Vitek et al. [13] reported that in a monkey model of PD produced using 1-methyl-4 phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), the kinesthetic zone expands anteriorly into regions that contain the active movement-related neurons. Kiss et al. [41] reported that in patients with tremor, there is an anterior expansion in the representation of the kinesthetic neurons without a change in their receptive field sizes. They suggested that tremor activates receptors responsive to deep sensations and, to a lesser degree, superficial sensations. Thus, repetitive tremor activities could result in a gradual increase in the synaptic efficacy of somatosensory inputs to kinesthetic neurons. Cells that respond to both somatosensory inputs and active movements are referred to as “combined” cells [42, 43] and have been identified only in patients with movement disorders.
Cells in the VL thalamic nucleus that demonstrate a discharge pattern with burst frequencies similar to that of tremor are called “tremor cells” [44, 45]. In a monkey model of resting tremor produced by a lesion of the ventral tegmentum, thalamic activity related to tremor frequency is unchanged following the interruption of sensory inputs [46, 47]. This finding has led to the hypothesis that the tremor cells may represent a central pacemaker for generating tremor, independent of sensory feedback [46, 48]. Tremor cells are reportedly located in the Vim nucleus and Vo complex [43, 49, 50]. The distribution of tremor cells is important for thalamic surgery, because tremor has been successfully treated when the radiofrequency lesion was centered within the cluster of tremor cells [39, 51, 52]. However, recent studies show that tremor cells are widely distributed in the Vim, Vo, and VC nuclei, and that they show no apparent differences in proportion within each nucleus [50]. These findings suggest that the ideal surgical target might not be determined by microelectrode recordings of tremor cells alone [49, 53]. The number of tremor cells in patients with PD is much higher than that in patients with other movement disorders, such as essential tremor (ET) and multiple sclerosis. This may play a role in the better surgical outcomes seen in patients with PD [50]. Based on their experiences, Katayama et al. [53] postulated that tremor cells might play a predominant role in the lateral portion of the Vim nucleus, an area that provides the most significant control of PD-associated tremor, in accordance with previous reports [54, 55].
3.6. Local field potentials (LFPs)
DBS procedures enable intraoperative micro-/macrorecordings and postoperative macrorecordings. Local field potentials (LFPs) can be recorded via macro- as well as microrecordings [66]. The oscillatory activity in the β frequency range has clinical relevance to movement disorders. It is widely distributed throughout the motor system and is desynchronized by voluntary movement in both the Vim and subthalamic nucleus (STN) [67-69]. Levodopa and high-frequency STN stimulation reduce β band LFP oscillations. This reduction positively correlates with an improvement of akinesia and rigidity, but not with a decrease of tremor [70-72], and the β range STN stimulation causes further impairment of movement in patients with PD [73-76]. The α range oscillations in patients with tremor-dominant PD show finely segregated muscle-specific subloops that strongly correlate with the tremor-affected muscles, and tremor suppression can be achieved using STN-DBS in areas with pronounced α oscillations [77, 78]. Given that basal ganglia β oscillation correlates with rigidity and akinesia and α oscillation correlates with tremor, these findings further suggest a differential pathophysiology between akinesia-rigidity and tremor.
In summary, the pathophysiological studies on parkinsonian tremor indicate that resting tremor may result from a pathological interaction between the basal ganglia and the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit. Tremor generation in the cerebello-thalamo-cortical circuit is likely triggered by activity in the basal ganglia.
4. Thalamic Vim DBS
4.1. Surgical procedures
The Vim DBS procedure is divided into the following five stages: (i) stereotactic imaging; (ii) thalamic mapping; (iii) electrode implantation; (iv) receiver of pulse generator implantation; and (v) programming. We perform the two successive steps of the procedure in the same operative session. The first step involves fixation of the stereotactic frame, stereotactic imaging, and placement of the thalamic electrode after application of local anesthesia. In the second step, the thalamic electrode is connected to the pulse generator while the patient is under general anesthesia. The intercommissural line-based coordinates for the tentative target in the thalamic Vim are determined 12 mm lateral to the midline, 5 mm anterior to the posterior commissure, and on the intercommissural line. In the operating room, a precoronal burr hole is placed 3 cm lateral to the midline, and a guiding cannula is inserted stereotactically. A quadripolar DBS electrode (Model 3387; Medtronic) is advanced directly through the guiding cannula. The characteristics of the tremor are assessed before, during, and immediately after the insertion of the electrode. Improvement of tremor at the time of insertion of the lead (the “microthalamotomy-like effect”) is considered to indicate good positioning of the electrode. Thresholds for both intrinsic and extrinsic evoked responses are analyzed directly via the implanted electrode with a screening device (Model 3625; Medtronic). When a satisfactory electrode position has been achieved, the stylet of the lead and the guiding cannula are carefully removed. The lead is fixed to the cranium with the burr hole ring and cap. General anesthesia is induced while the stereotactic head frame is removed. The pulse generator is implanted in a subcutaneous infraclavicular pouch after being connected to the DBS electrode with a subcutaneous extension wire. In most patients, an Activa SC implantable pulse generator (Medtronic) is used.
The pulse generator can be programmed immediately after surgery. If a prolonged microthalamotomy-like effect is present, the pulse generator is programmed at the time of reappearance of the tremor. Routine postoperative CT scans are performed to rule out hemorrhage. Patients are instructed on how to switch their device on and off using a handheld magnet, and told to turn their device off at night when possible to maximize battery life. Some teams do not connect the pulse generator immediately and use this period to repeat some external stimulation to confirm that the stimulation improves tremor without side effects. This period can also be used to perform a brain MRI to check the electrode location and possible lesion. Many radiologists prefer this to be done before pulse generator implantation for safety reasons.
4.2. Programming challenges
The optimal stimulating parameters are determined using monopolar or bipolar stimulation. The easiest way to screen the parameters is to study each contact one after the other: the contact studied is programmed as the cathode, and the case is programmed as the anode. For example, first a constant pulse width of 90 μs and a constant frequency of 160 Hz are selected. Then the voltage is progressively increased to find the threshold for symptom suppression without adverse effects, using the contact(s) that gives the best effect. Best results are usually obtained at a pulse frequency of 130–185 Hz (no lower than 100 Hz), pulse width of 60–90 μs, and amplitude of 1.5–3.6 V.
If this screening does not reveal parameters to control tremor, other combinations can be tried. The pulse width and frequency can be increased. Stimulating more than one contact at the same time and using bipolar stimulation can also be tried. Bipolar stimulation is particularly useful if limiting side effects are obtained with a low voltage before reaching the threshold to stop tremor. If these measures are still not helpful, the position of the electrode can be checked using MRI or CT, and re-implantation can be discussed if necessary.
4.3. Mechanism of action
Similarities in the effectiveness of thalamic DBS and thalamotomy have led investigators to suggest that DBS acts as a reversible lesion of the thalamus, but the mechanism of action of thalamic DBS is yet unclear. With respect to tremor suppression, 4 different hypotheses of Vim DBS have been proposed: (1) conduction block—this hypothesis is supported by the fact that Vim thalamotomy has similar effects to Vim DBS [83]; (2) activation of inhibitory axon terminals that synapse onto and inhibit projection neurons [93]; (3) superimposition of continuous stimuli onto rhythmically oscillating subcortical-cortical loops [94]; and (4) inhibition of neuronal activity near the stimulation site while activating axonal elements that leave the target structure [95]. Recent reports have shown that during high-frequency stimulation, glutamate and adenosine are increased [96-99], and this elevated glutamate release could excite local interneurons, thereby increasing the production of inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., GABA and glycine) and resulting in a decrease in the firing rates of projection neurons [99].
4.4. Therapeutic impacts
Before the levodopa era, severe tremor was a main indication for surgery [79]. In the 1960s, thousands of patients with PD throughout the world received a thalamotomy [80] or other procedures such as pallidotomy, campotomy, or pedunculotomy [81]. During this period, it was observed that the high-frequency stimulation used for targeting during lesioning of the thalamus significantly reduced tremor [82]. In the 1980s, Benabid et al. demonstrated that DBS of the Vim significantly reduced tremor, and they have treated more than 100 patients with thalamic DBS [83-85]. Several studies have demonstrated that DBS of the thalamus has comparable control of tremor with fewer side effects than does thalamotomy. Vim DBS is highly beneficial for tremor control, but ineffective for the other disabling features of PD, including akinesia, rigidity, and gait and postural disturbances. Benabid et al. [85] showed that chronic Vim stimulation is highly effective for tremor in a group of 117 tremor patients; over 85% of patients had a very good or excellent response with little or no tremor evident in the contralateral arm. With a double-blind multicenter study to assess the efficacy of unilateral Vim DBS against placebo, Koller et al. [86] have shown an 80% reduction in contralateral arm tremor in 24 patients with PD tremor and 29 patients with ET with Vim DBS at the 1-year follow-up.
With respect to the long-term efficacy of Vim DBS, Schuurman et al. [87] reported that 88% of patients showed complete or nearly complete tremor suppression after a mean follow-up period of 5 years. Hariz et al. [88] reported 38 patients with PD who received Vim DBS with a follow-up period of 6 years. The long-term follow-up of Vim DBS revealed effective control of tremor 6 years postoperatively, while axial symptoms worsened. The initial improvement in activities of daily living (ADL) scores at the 1-year follow-up disappeared after 6 years. Hariz et al. [89] showed significant increases in stimulation parameters for up to 1 year; however, after the 1-year stimulation, the parameters seemed to stabilize. By contrast, Kumar et al. [90] reported that it was necessary to increase the current intensity over time to control tremor. This increase in amplitude is undesirable, as it often causes paresthesia and cerebellar adverse effects [83, 91]. During the follow-up, some tolerance (necessity to gradually increase the voltage to control tremor) and a rebound effect (tremor much worse than before when the stimulator is switched off) can develop [86, 89]. This affects an action tremor more frequently. Switching off the stimulator at night can sometimes limit the tolerance effect. Recurrence of tremor is seen in ~5% of patients several weeks or years after surgery [83, 92].
4.5. Adverse events
The stimulation-induced side effects of Vim DBS are reversible, and usually mild and acceptable. Incidences of stimulation-related complications reported at long-term (greater than 5 years) follow-up include paresthesia (4–38%), dysarthria (3–36%), dystonia/hypertonia (3–16%), gait disturbance (11–16%), balance disturbance (5%), and cognitive dysfunction (2%). Among these adverse effects, non-adjustable and long-lasting complications include dysarthria (10–27%), paresthesia (16%), gait disturbance (7%), dystonia (5%), upper limb ataxia (3–4%), and disequilibrium (3–4%) [88, 100, 101]. Pahwa et al. [101] described occurrences of persistent complications, including dysarthria, disequilibrium, and gait disturbance, after bilateral stimulation, even when the stimulus parameters were optimized.
The incidence of infection appears to be 0–11% during the early follow-up periods and 0–8% throughout the postoperative course [87, 88, 100]. Hardware failures are occasionally found in the stimulator (0–3%), the DBS lead (0–8%), or the cable (0–3%); skin erosion (0–4%) and hematoma requiring evacuation of the stimulator (0–3%) have also been reported [87, 88, 100].
5. Conclusions
Vim DBS is an appropriate first-line treatment for medically intractable tremor in patients with PD. Although its therapeutic effects on ADL outcome decreases gradually after the surgery, long-term tremor suppression remains stable. We suggest that Vim DBS is useful for patients with tremor-dominant PD, who manifest slow progression of disease and a good response of non-tremor PD symptoms to dopaminergic therapy.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported in part by the Grants from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (grant-in-aid for Scientific Research, 23500428; 21390269; 23659458; 24390223).
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Surgical anatomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Pathophysiology of parkinsonian tremor",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Clinicopathological study",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Positron emission tomography (PET) and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4. Magnetoencephalography (MEG)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5. Cell recordings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6. Local field potentials (LFPs)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Thalamic Vim DBS",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.1. Surgical procedures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.2. Programming challenges",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.3. Mechanism of action",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.4. Therapeutic impacts",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.5. Adverse events",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. 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Brain. 83: 337-350.'},{id:"B83",body:'Benabid, AL.; Pollak, P.; Gao, D.; Hoffmann, D.; Limousin, P.; Gay, E.; Payen, I. & Benazzouz, A. (1996). Chronic electrical stimulation of the ventralis intermedius nucleus of the thalamus as a treatment of movement disorders. J Neurosurg. 84 (2): 203-214.'},{id:"B84",body:'Benabid, AL.; Pollak, P.; Gervason, C.; Hoffmann, D.; Gao, DM.; Hommel, M.; Perret, JE. & de Rougemont, J. (1991). Long-term suppression of tremor by chronic stimulation of the ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus. Lancet. 337 (8738): 403-406.'},{id:"B85",body:'Pollak, P.; Benabid, AL.; Limousin, P. & Benazzouz, A. (1997). Chronic intracerebral stimulation in Parkinson\'s disease. Adv Neurol. 74: 213-20.'},{id:"B86",body:'Koller, W.; Pahwa, R.; Busenbark, K.; Hubble, J.; Wilkinson, S.; Lang, A.; Tuite, P.; Sime, E.; Lozano, A.; Hauser, R.; Malapira, T.; Smith, D.; Tarsy, D.; Miyawaki, E.; Norregaard, T.; Kormos, T. & Olanow, CW. (1997). High-frequency unilateral thalamic stimulation in the treatment of essential and parkinsonian tremor. Ann Neurol. 42 (3): 292-299.'},{id:"B87",body:'Schuurman, PR.; Bosch, DA.; Merkus, MP. & Speelman, JD. (2008). Long-term follow-up of thalamic stimulation versus thalamotomy for tremor suppression. Mov Disord. 23 (8): 1146-1153.'},{id:"B88",body:'Hariz, MI.; Krack, P.; Alesch, F.; Augustinsson, LE.; Bosch, A.; Ekberg, L.; Johansson, F.; Johnels, B.; Meyerson, BA.; N\'Guyen, JP.; Pinter, M.; Pollak, P.; von Raison, F.; Rehncrona, S.; Speelman, JD.; Sydow, O. & Benabid, AL. (2008). Multicentre European study of thalamic stimulation for parkinsonian tremor: a 6 year follow-up. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 79 (6): 694-699.'},{id:"B89",body:'Hariz, MI.; Shamsgovara, P.; Johansson, F.; Hariz, G. & Fodstad, H. (1999). Tolerance and tremor rebound following long-term chronic thalamic stimulation for Parkinsonian and essential tremor. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 72 (2-4): 208-218.'},{id:"B90",body:'Kumar, K.; Kelly, M. & Toth, C. (1999). Deep brain stimulation of the ventral intermediate nucleus of the thalamus for control of tremors in Parkinson\'s disease and essential tremor. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 72 (1): 47-61.'},{id:"B91",body:'Yamamoto, T.; Katayama, Y.; Kano, T.; Kobayashi, K.; Oshima, H. & Fukaya, C. (2004). Deep brain stimulation for the treatment of parkinsonian, essential, and poststroke tremor: a suitable stimulation method and changes in effective stimulation intensity. J Neurosurg. 101 (2): 201-209.'},{id:"B92",body:'Tasker, RR. (1998). Deep brain stimulation is preferable to thalamotomy for tremor suppression. Surg Neurol. 49 (2): 145-153.'},{id:"B93",body:'Wu, YR.; Levy, R.; Ashby, P.; Tasker, RR. & Dostrovsky, JO. (2001). Does stimulation of the GPi control dyskinesia by activating inhibitory axons? Mov Disord. 16 (2): 208-216.'},{id:"B94",body:'Montgomery, EBJr. & Baker, KB. (2000). Mechanisms of deep brain stimulation and future technical developments. Neurol Res. ogical research. 22 (3): 259-266.'},{id:"B95",body:'Vitek, JL. (2002). Mechanisms of deep brain stimulation: excitation or inhibition. Mov Disord. 17 (Suppl 3): S69-S72.'},{id:"B96",body:'Anderson, TR.; Hu, B.; Iremonger, K. & Kiss, ZH. (2006). Selective attenuation of afferent synaptic transmission as a mechanism of thalamic deep brain stimulation-induced tremor arrest. J Neurosci. 26 (3): 841-850.'},{id:"B97",body:'Anderson, T.; Hu, B.; Pittman, Q. & Kiss, ZH. (2004). Mechanisms of deep brain stimulation: an intracellular study in rat thalamus. J Physiol. 559 (Pt 1): 301-313.'},{id:"B98",body:'Bekar, L.; Libionka, W.; Tian, GF.; Xu, Q.; Torres, A.; Wang, X.; Lovatt, D.; Williams, E.; Takano, T.; Schnermann, J.; Bakos, R. & Nedergaard, M. (2008). Adenosine is crucial for deep brain stimulation-mediated attenuation of tremor. Nat Med. 14 (1): 75-80.'},{id:"B99",body:'Tawfik, VL.; Chang, SY.; Hitti, FL.; Roberts, DW.; Leiter, JC.; Jovanovic, S. & Lee, KH. (2010). Deep brain stimulation results in local glutamate and adenosine release: investigation into the role of astrocytes. Neurosurgery. 67 (2): 367-375.'},{id:"B100",body:'Rehncrona, S.; Johnels, B.; Widner, H.; Tornqvist, AL.; Hariz, M. & Sydow, O. (2003). Long-term efficacy of thalamic deep brain stimulation for tremor: double-blind assessments. Mov Disord. 18 (2): 163-170.'},{id:"B101",body:'Pahwa, R.; Lyons, KE.; Wilkinson, SB.; Simpson, RKJr.; Ondo, WG.; Tarsy, D.; Norregaard, T.; Hubble, JP.; Smith, DA.; Hauser, RA. & Jankovic J. (2006). Long-term evaluation of deep brain stimulation of the thalamus. J Neurosurg. 104 (4): 506-512.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Naoki Tani",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Neurosurgery, Otemae Hospital, Osaka, Japan
Department of Motor Neuroscience and Neurotherapeutics, Institute of Health Biosciences, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, University of Tokushima, Tokushima, Japan
Department of Motor Neuroscience and Neurotherapeutics, Institute of Health Biosciences, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, University of Tokushima, Tokushima, Japan
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\n
1. Introduction
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Fish farming is an animal production sector that followed, in the past years, various dynamic paths according to the region considered. For instance, between 1995 and 2015, this sector displayed a strong increase at global scale with a production rising from 14.9 to 51.3 Mt. (+242%), whereas only a slight increase was observed within the European Union countries: from 490,000 to 660,000 tons (+34%). At national level, fish production has decreased from 65,500 tons in 1995 to 44,500 tons in 2005 (−32%) in France, despite its expansion in other countries like Norway. This fact illustrates that the development of this sector depends strongly on territorial contexts. Despite projections indicating the strong increase of aquaculture at global scale up to 2050, much higher than any other animal production sectors, except for poultry production [1, 2], some territories are facing several obstacles. These obstacles include, among others, (i) competition with other economic sectors (fisheries, tourism, agriculture, production of potable water, etc.), for access to land and water resources, (ii) an economical context of free exchange that often results in strong competition with imported products coming from countries with much lower production costs, (iii) policies (environmental and social protection, food safety, etc.) most often perceived as very binding, and (iv) a degraded image of rearing systems and farming products for which sustainability is frequently questioned by societies in developed countries, particularly concerning quality of products, respect of animal welfare, and environmental impacts. All these issues could hamper the development of aquaculture in some developed countries, such as France. In this context, it is hard to conceive that fish farming could increase significantly in those regions. Nevertheless, these territories are heterogeneous and often display a strong historical, cultural (e.g., culinary traditions), and landscape (mountainous or coastal regions, ponds, wetlands, etc.) diversity that results in numerous microterritories with their specific consumption of fish or more exactly very typical products or dishes. This is particularly true for Europe and France. For instance, one might cite the consumption of smoked eel in the Netherlands [3], frying of cyprinids (roach, rudd) in the Valley of Moselle (Luxemburg), tench in the region of Extremadura in Spain, fried carps in the Sundgau in Alsace in France, meager in the southeast French Mediterranean Sea, or Eurasian perch in the countries around the Alps. These small markets rely on a close link between local populations, the history of the territory, and the presence of a specific landscape (e.g., country of ponds) or particular ecosystems (lakes) and the animal species inhabiting these regions. This tight link between consumers and species is obviously the case for the market of Eurasian perch in the Alps region, where consumers often require the presence of the fish skin to clearly observe the alternation of dark and light bands, typical of this species [4]. These are key advantages for this territory that could allow the development of a diversified and resilient aquaculture based on the diversification of the production and the domestication of new fish species, corresponding to a development model that we can call “mosaic aquaculture.” This is in this global context associated with this vision that the domestication of Eurasian perch started in the early 1990s, 25 years ago. The understanding of the initial motivations and the process of domestication realized over this period require first considering the specificities of inland European aquaculture and associated territories.
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In Europe (European Union), inland aquaculture only represents 25.3% of the total production [5]. Two main distinct economic sectors exist, salmoniculture (farming of salmonids, chiefly monoculture of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in running waters and pond culture, corresponding to polyculture in ponds with the dominant species being common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Thus, logically, the two most consumed fish species in Europe are rainbow trout (second) and common carp (fifth), mainly in Central and Eastern Europe for the latter. The domestication of Eurasian perch started in France with the will to diversify inland aquaculture while respecting the other economic sectors already developed, particularly pond aquaculture. Interestingly, it is important to specify that in France, pond aquaculture is mainly for the restocking market in link with angling activities: fish are sold alive to river managers (associations of anglers) or private ponds. These markets are both more lucrative and less demanding in terms of personnel and investment. A very small percentage of this aquaculture production is destined to the markets for human consumption.
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2. Why choosing Eurasian perch?
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The initial choice of Eurasian perch resulted from several points that were taken into account locally, like at the Lorraine territory scale in France. First, at national level, there was at that time the mutual motivation by several stakeholders (producers, policymakers, and developing agencies) to promote and diversify freshwater aquaculture with different incentives, even though the human consumption market was targeted (Table 1). In Lorraine, this dynamism first resulted in one part in the structuring of the inter-profession with the establishment of the Inland Aquaculture Lorraine Sector (Filière Lorraine d’Aquaculture Continentale) in 1987 and on the other part the inception of a new specific university diploma in inland aquaculture, the “Ingénieur-Technologue” DI-T [6, 7, 8]. Besides, carnivorous fishes, such as Eurasian perch, pikeperch Sander lucioperca, or pike Esox Lucius, are and remain both the most appreciated species by anglers and consumers who know them, particularly in Western Europe (except salmonids). Third, a survey realized at the European scale revealed that in some territories (Eastern France, Switzerland, and Northern Italia), this species was widely consumed in various forms (whole fish, fillets, etc.) and at different sizes (Table 2) [9], and they exist a niche market relatively large such as in Switzerland where it was estimated at about 4000 tons of fillets per year with a supply essentially ensured by fisheries from large lakes in Central and Northern Europe and Russia [10, 11]. Fourth, the production of Eurasian perch in polyculture ponds remains challenging to control, which is less the case for other carnivorous species. So much that in certain French regions (Centre), this species was considered as undesirable by fish farmers because of dwarfing problems often linked to the overabundance of young individuals [11].
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Species
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Territories
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Initial will
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Current production in France
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Black bass Micropterus salmoides
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South-West
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Angling, human consumption
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Negligible
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Siberian sturgeon Acipenser baeri
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Aquitaine
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To preserve another sturgeon species (A. sturio)
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17 farms, third global producer of caviar
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Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis
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Lorraine, Rhône-Alpes
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Human consumption
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100 tons, three perch farms
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Wels Silurus glanis
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Centre, Languedoc
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Human consumption
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Negligible
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Table 1.
Trials of diversification and domestication of new fish species in inland aquaculture in metropolitan France during the last decades of the twentieth century.
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Countries
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Production/exploited ecosystems
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Valorization
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Germany
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Fisheries (large lakes, rivers, Baltic Sea)
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Angling, exportation, weak human consumption
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Austria
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Fisheries (Constance Lake)
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Exportation, human consumption
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Belgium
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Fisheries in rivers, polyculture in ponds
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Angling
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Bulgaria
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Fisheries in rivers or in reservoirs
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Angling, human consumption
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Denmark
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Fisheries in lakes or estuaries
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Angling, exportation
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Finland
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Fisheries in Baltic Sea and inland waters
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Angling, strong human consumption
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France
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Fisheries in lakes and rivers
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Angling, strong human consumption (East)
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Great Britain
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Fisheries in lakes and rivers
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Angling
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Hungary
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Fisheries in lakes and rivers
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Angling
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Ireland
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Lough Neagh
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Exportation
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Luxemburg
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Fisheries in rivers
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Angling, weakly consumed
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Norway
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Fisheries in inland waters of East, South, and North-East
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Angling, exportation, human consumption
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Netherlands
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Fisheries in IJsselmeer lakes and inland waters
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Angling, weak human consumption
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Baltic countries
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Fisheries in lakes
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Exportation
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Poland
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Fisheries in inland waters (Swinoujscie region)
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Angling, exportation
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Czech Republic and Slovakia
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Fisheries in the Danube River and other rivers
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Angling, human consumption
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Romania
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Fisheries in ponds, in the Danube River, Razelm Lake
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Angling, human consumption
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Serbia and Macedonia
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Fisheries in the Danube River and lakes (Dojran Lake)
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Human consumption
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Sweden
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Fisheries in the Baltic Sea
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Angling, exportation, human consumption
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Switzerland
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Fisheries in lake
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Angling, strong human consumption
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Table 2.
Interest for Eurasian perch according to European countries, survey realized in 1993 [9].
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Summing up, the domestication of Eurasian perch appeared as a good compromise for several reasons: (1) a diversification of aquaculture production targeting the human consumption market by valuing a native species known by consumers and benefiting from a good image and an established market niche and (2) the development of a new activity that did not harm other traditional activities of the sector (no competition). Initially, this project of diversification aimed at developing a complementary activity for pond fish farmers. Besides, linking to the survey realized [9], a possible competition with capture fisheries coming from Eastern and Central Europe as well as Scandinavia was highlighted; yet, surveyed persons stated that the capture levels were highly variable from one year to another, product quality (filleting yield) also strongly varied (effect of reproductive cycle), and supply period of market was stopped during the spawning season in spring. Consequently, all these facts confirmed the possibilities to develop an aquaculture of Eurasian perch targeting a regular production of fresh fillets with a constant and high quality.
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3. Acquiring knowledge on the biology of P. fluviatilis and P. flavescens
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A the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, an in-depth analysis of the available literature on the biology of Eurasian perch and a North American close species, the yellow perch P. flavescens, was performed to better evaluate potentialities of this species. We first analyzed general articles as well as book chapters [12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Then, we considered more specific studies focusing on the characteristics of populations inhabiting particular aquatic areas [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. In the meantime, because some farming trials were already performed on yellow perch in the United States (large lake areas), a similar approach was realized aiming at establishing a synthesis of knowledge acquired on the zootechny of this sister species [28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. At this period, yellow perch was considered as the reference to promote the farming of Eurasian perch. This choice was reinforced by the fact that questioning about the rearing systems (ponds or recirculated systems) was similar. Based on these bibliographical analyses, preliminary thoughts resulted in the emergence of farming possibilities in Europe [39], and perciculture (i.e., farming of perch) was proposed as a possible way to diversity inland aquaculture in Europe [40].
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3.1. Study of the life cycle of perch in natural conditions, first zootechnical trials, and choice of the rearing system
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During the 1990s, researches were undertaken to first better know the life cycle of the species in local aquatic ecosystems, mainly in the Mirgenbach reservoir and Lindre ponds (Moselle, France), and second to determine the potential of this species at different stages (larval rearing, on-growing). The choice of the Mirgenbach was linked to the fact that this reservoir presents heated waters due to the nuclear power plant of Cattenom and could potentially present thermic conditions more favorable for the growth of perch, in the perspective of a future economic development. These field studies allowed describing the feeding regime, growth (relation size-weight), composition of the main tissues (muscles, gonads, liver, viscera), as well as the reproductive cycle [27, 41, 42, 43, 44]. These data constituted the frame of reference and brought the basis for future experimentations, such as the control of the reproductive cycle. In parallel to these descriptive studies, first trials of acclimatization were realized using perch sampled at different development stages in natural conditions (e.g., egg ribbons mainly from the Leman Lake, INRA Thonon-les-Bains, Haute-Savoie, France), polyculture ponds (young perch of 4–20 g for Lorraine fish farm ponds), or rivers (eggs ribbons from Meuse). The acclimatization of young perch, either juveniles or sexually mature individuals, with diverse features from one year to another, was closely linked to the will to value stocks of fish often very abundant during fall and spring pond fisheries and displaying a low market value. Based on the works performed on the yellow perch [32, 34, 36], several weaning protocols were tested using feeds or diverse raw materials (beef liver, frozen plankton, dried or hydrated formulated feeds) [45]. Because of (i) very high mortality rate (40–60% in 2 months) linked to food refusal, development of pathologies caused by Aeromonas hydrophila and cannibalism, (ii) high variability of qualities of the different batches of fishes received (juveniles or mature fishes, sizes, more or less lean fish, etc.), and (iii) difficulty of weaning protocols, this way of developing perciculture was rapidly stopped. Nevertheless, it was maintained during few years to produce the biological material to realize growth trials and produce breeders [46]. This work allowed conducting a thinking on the choice of the rearing system, which was the most adapted to perciculture. If the production of juveniles could be realized in small ponds following extensive or semi-intensive methods [47], the on-growing phase was rapidly focused on rearing systems in controlled conditions, which allow higher production levels and a rationalization of rearing conditions to guarantee a reproducibility of performances and the development of the sector. Thus, on-growing trials were performed in floating cages (Lindre ponds, Lake of Féronval) and in recirculated aquaculture system (RAS) in Belgium and France. In this comparative approach of the possible potentialities by different rearing systems, it was demonstrated that similar specific growth rates were obtained in cages and RAS, but survival rates, feed conversion rates, and the homogeneity of individual weights were better in RAS [45, 48, 49]. It also appeared that perches farmed in cages had started a reproductive cycle: females and males captured in September (40–70 g) displayed gonadosomatic indexes of 2.4 and 7.1%, respectively, whereas they were constant and low in RAS (<0.5, sexual resting) [45, 48]. Yet, the development of gonads at such a low weight, lower than the market weight targeted (80–120 g), constituted a problem for maintaining optimal growth performances. These zootechnical trials also demonstrated that this species was very sensitive to pathogens, among which are parasites such as Heteropolaria sp., a protozoaire [50, 51], or bacteria, such as Aeromonas sobria [52]. This sensitivity of this species led to the shutdown of the project of the enterprise Perlac SA located in the Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland. The sensitivity of this species to external parasites, such as Dactylogyrus or Costias, was confirmed during the first rearing trials performed by the society Lucas Perches created in 2001 in France [53]. At this period, this society used the water from a small river “La petite seille” to decrease the water temperature coming from a geothermal forage used by the society. At last, a strong individual growth heterogeneity was observed during trials [50]. All these experiences realized in Belgium, France, and Switzerland resulted in the choice of RAS as the most adapted rearing system for the development of perciculture [54, 55]. This choice was confirmed by technical choices operated by the first perch farms, Percitech in Switzerland (society created in 1994) and Lucas Perches in France (created in 2002) (Figure 1). Since then, researches exclusively focus on this rearing system using diets for trout or sea bass mainly.
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Figure 1.
Timeline displaying the key phases of the domestication of Eurasian perch with from one hand the main knowledge acquired and the decisive decision taken (above the bar) and from the other hand the major events that occurred (below the bar) over the period 1990–2018.
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3.2. Control of the life cycle of Eurasian perch for the development of perciculture in RAS
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Once the rearing system selected (intensive monoculture in RAS for the production of fillet for human consumption), diverse researches were performed in order to control the life cycle of the species in indoor conditions. They include the control of the reproductive cycle, the development of larval rearing protocols, the determination of nutritional needs, the optimization of growth performances, the control of quality of products, and first trials of genetic improvement. These researches were funded by both national (mainly in Belgium and France) and international, chiefly thanks to the European Union (FAIR-CT96-1572 1996-1998, FAIR-CT98-9241 1998-1999, Σ! 2321 ACRAPEP/ANVAR A0011134L 2001-2004, COOP-CT-2004-512629-PERCATECH 2004-2006) programs.
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3.3. Control of the reproduction
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Even though the market for the perch fillet remains seasonal in the traditional consumption market (March–October), the development of an intensive monoculture in RAS required a complete control of the reproductive cycle in order to obtain out-of-season spawning and not only rely on the single annual reproduction occurring in spring [41, 42, 43, 56]. A first research axis focused on the environmental control of the reproductive cycle. A preliminary test demonstrated the possibility of controlling the reproductive cycle by manipulating both water temperature and duration of photoperiod [57]. Thereafter, these researches allowed disentangling the respective roles of water temperature variations and duration of photophase by distinguishing the different phases of a reproductive cycle: induction, vitellogenesis, and final steps of the cycle [58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66]. All these works allowed developing a reliable protocol for the induction of out-of-season spawning close to 100% [67]. This program is now routinely applied in farm conditions; it allowed the realization of 2–12 reproductive cycles per year with different batches of breeders managed in delayed conditions. If the temperature variations and the duration of photoperiod drive the timing of the successive steps of the reproductive cycle (determining factors), other factors can modulate the quality of reproductive performances observed. For example, the feeding strategy is very important, and thus the nutritional needs of breeders were specified [68, 69]. In fact, numerous rearing factors, including environmental, nutritional, and populational, can act on breeders and influence their reproductive performances; multifactorial approaches must be used to optimize rearing conditions and secure performances [70, 71].
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Complementary to the control of reproductive cycle for the induction of out-of-season spawning, additional protocols based on hormonal injection were developed to synchronize spawning during the reproductive season [72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77]. They were based on previous works performed on the yellow perch [78, 79, 80]. The application of hormonal injections is now facilitated by the use of a classification method of oocyte stage maturation in preovulatory period [81]. At last, reliable protocols for collecting gametes (spermatozoa, oocytes) and artificial reproduction are also now available [82].
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3.4. Larval rearing
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Initially, trials of larval rearing were performed with spawning collected in various aquatic areas. Like for on-growing trials, several ways were initially prospected to promote the production of weaned juveniles: (1) an extensive production in small ponds with an ex situ weaning in tanks, (2) a semi-intensive production in mesocosms, and (3) an intensive production in RAS [83]. Even though few fish farms used the methods of mesocosms to produce the juveniles, particularly in Ireland, this is the intensive rearing in RAS that is mainly used nowadays. The first works aimed at optimizing the abiotic environment of farming (light intensity, duration of photophase, color of tank walls) and feeding protocols [84, 85, 86, 87]. Initially, particular attention was paid to the use or not and the choice of live prey for larval rearing. The first protocols that have been developed used rotifers [88] or nauplii of Artemia spp. of various sizes [84, 87, 89, 90, 91]. The feeding transition (weaning = change from a feeding based on live prey to a commercial formulated diet) was soon questioned [92]. Very rapidly, major issues appeared: first, a high growth heterogeneity with a strong intra-cohort cannibalism rate [93, 94, 95] and second, the onset of developmental anomalies (malformations of skeleton and lordosis) with notably low inflation rate of the swim bladder [96, 97, 98].
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The very strong impact of cannibalism within the first weeks of rearing was rapidly confirmed during the first commercial production [53]. Up to now, the strategy adopted by fish farmers to reduce cannibalism relies on frequent sorting (each week or 2 weeks) to maintain homogeneous batches during the nursery period and early weeks of on-growing. At that level, the results obtained by Mandiki et al. [99] suggested that they are natural populations less aggressive than others are, when they are placed in rearing conditions. Consequently it could be interesting to evaluate the intraspecific variability of wild populations (search for more docile populations). Concerning the problems of the inflation of the swim bladder and developmental anomalies often linked to the first point, they are mainly related to larval rearing conditions [100]. An improvement of rearing conditions associated with a high level of prophylaxis allowed increasing inflation rates and reduced malformation rates. In order to avoid the on-growing of individuals without swim bladder, protocols of sorting, based on practices realized in marine fish farming, were developed [101, 102]. Today, perch farms with well-conceived and seriously managed hatchery-nursery produce regular batches of 0.5 up to 1 million of weaned juveniles. However, developmental anomalies remain regularly observed in farms [103]. It is important to specify that the publication of a developmental table for the embryo-larvae corresponding to a normal development constitutes a major tool to identify the causes of common developmental anomalies) [104].
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3.5. On-growing, nutritional needs
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Once fry were available, trials on pre-on-growing and on-growing were realized in order to determine from one part the optimal conditions of growth and on the other part the potential of this species. It was first demonstrated that this species has a diurnal feeding activity [105]; the application of photoperiod with a long photophase stimulates growth and inhibits gonadal development [106]. First rearing trials had also demonstrated the gregarious behavior of this species (schooling behavior) and its ability to feed on pellets [46]. At this period, feeds for rainbow trout or sea bass were distributed to perch; feed conversion rates of 1.0–1.5 were registered according to the ration rate applied [49, 106, 107, 108]. High survival rates were also obtained (>80%).
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Once these favorable prerequisites were established (gregarious behavior, sufficient survival, acceptability of artificial feeds, correct alimentary conversion rate, etc.), more dedicated researches were realized on the effects of both major abiotic and biotic factors on growth. Thus, it was demonstrated that the optimal temperature for growth was 22–24°C [107]. Thereafter, complementary works allowed specifying the effects of the rearing environment (tank wall color, light intensity, manipulations) on the ingested feed and growth [109, 110]. The effects of rearing conditions on the physiological state of fish were also studied; perch appeared as very sensitive to both poor conditions and manipulations [111, 112]. At the feeding level, ration table for maintenance and optimal and maximal growth according to physiological stages were determined [107, 108, 113, 114]. Then, nutritional needs were progressively determined to promote the emergence of a feed for percids once the volume of production would be large enough. Thus, the nutritional requirements in proteins, lipids, and some additives, such as oxidative as ethoxyquin, were specified [89, 115, 116, 117, 118]. These studies allowed defining that a feed for perch should contain 43–50% of proteins, 13–18% of lipids, and 10–15% of glucids [119].
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3.6. Quality of products
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The domestication of species for the human consumption market requires knowing and controlling the quality of products (whole fish, fillet). Thus, very early, once the first zootechnical trials were completed, the chemical composition of the tissue of perch, and notably muscle, was analyzed [41, 120]. One major goal was the production of constant quality fillet to consumers, similar to the wild fillet coming from the lake. Researches were started from one part to understand the natural variability of organoleptic properties of the perch fillet according to the origin of captures and, on the other part, to identify the determinants of this quality. Importantly, the quality of a product is a vague and complex notion that depends on nutritional, technological, sensorial, and sanitary features. Thus, features of perch coming from different regions (Geneva Lake, Rhine estuary) were compared among themselves and to perch obtained from RAS [121, 122]. It was found that first the quality of products was highly variable according to the natural environment studied and second that farming factors (feeds, rearing densities, etc.) strongly impacted the properties of farmed perch [123, 124]. In fact, the control of the quality of products (flesh or whole fish), over the course of domestication, is multifactorial [125, 126].
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3.7. Manipulation of sex and ploidy: genetic management of domesticated populations
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The Eurasian perch displays a sexual dimorphism of growth in favor of females [107, 108]; thus, the production of monosex female populations has rapidly appeared as a solution to reduce growth heterogeneity and increase growth performances. Hence, protocols (hormonal treatment with 17α-methyltestosterone) were developed for the production of homogametic males or neomales (XX) [127], with a sperm quality similar to heterogametic males [128]. Once produced and mature, those neomales were breeded with normal females (XX) allowing the production of 100% females, for which growth improvements were observed after 7 months of rearing in RAS at 23°C [129]. In a complementary study, trials of production of 100% female populations were also realized by gynogenesis using spermatozoa inactivated by UV radiation [130]. However, due to the low survival rates as well as insufficient growth performances, this method is rarely used [129].
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A second path, triploidization, was also studied in order to produce sterile animals. This path also appeared as very important because Eurasian perch is a species that can start a reproductive cycle before reaching market size. It is possible to capture in natural habitats (ponds) sexually mature females and males as such low weights as 10–20 g, even lower for males. As for other species reared in fish farming (salmonids), protocols based on thermal or pressure chocks were also developed to produce triploid perch [131].
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With the development of perch farms (7–8 farms localized in Germany, France, Ireland, and Switzerland) and the increase of production in RAS (estimated between 500 and 800 tons per year), first thinking on the necessity to develop selective breeding programs emerged, mainly to improve growth performances and decrease production costs. Yet, up to now, no true selective breeding programs exist, even though basic genetic knowledge was acquired to develop them. Studies have notably allowed to characterize the genetic variability of wild perch, very often used as founding populations of current farmed stocks [132, 133] and stocks of domesticated breeders currently present in perch farms [134]. These studies have demonstrated that the available stocks of domesticated perch in farms were (i) sufficiently genetically variable to allow developing selective genetic programs (lack of consanguinity) and (ii) often genetically distant from the origin populations (Alpine lakes) presumably assumed by fish farmers.
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4. Dissemination and knowledge transfer
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The domestication of a species requires the onset of periods of exchanges between all stakeholders of the sector (Figure 1), notably to allow transfer of expertise and co-elaboration of projects based on the identification of priorities and major bottlenecks. Concerning Eurasian perch, very rapidly, the few research laboratories implied in this species cooperated and organized scientific seminars at different scales to allow sharing new knowledge. The meetings organized at the transatlantic level (Canada, USA, and Europe) aimed first at sharing works performed on Eurasian and yellow perch. Some of these events (Namur, 2008; Nancy, 2014) had for main objective exchanges between the socioeconomic stakeholders of the sector (fish farmers, designer of fish farms, traders in aquatic products, etc.). Progressively, knowledge was compiled in more and more comprehensive book [135, 136]. Obviously, this diffusion of knowledge and co-construction also occurred at local, regional, and national scales. In France, for instance, an informal group of exchanges, entitled “National group of pond carnivorous fish,” often met in the beginning of the 1990s to discuss experience on various species (Wels, pikeperch, black-bass, and perch) that were the subject of diversification [137, 138, 139, 140]. At the regional level, in Lorraine, the “ Filière Lorraine d’Aquaculture Continentale (FLAC)” supports diverse zootechnical trials and, therefore, actively contributes to the emergence of perch farms on this territory. Later a similar initiative was taken in other regions from other countries, like in Ireland [141].
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5. Conclusion
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The domestication of Eurasian perch was initially based on local issues (niche market, development of activities and jobs in rural environments). This domestication occurred in a few main steps: (1) socioeconomic analysis of the market, (2) first zootechnical trials and choice of the major rearing system (RAS), and (3) acquisition of in-depth knowledge on the successive stages of the production cycle (control of the reproductive cycle and reproduction, control of the larval rearing, on-growing, and quality of products) (Figure 1). It is important to highlight that the first two steps strongly considered the knowledge previously acquired on a close species, the yellow perch. Today, the Eurasian perch is considered at the level 4 of domestication, which means that the entire life cycle is closed in captivity without any wild inputs but no selective breeding programs is applied [142].
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Even though the first experimental trials were initiated at the beginning of the 1990s, the first perch farm (SARL Lucas Perches) created within the European Union was located in 2002 as a pilot enterprise. Importantly in Switzerland, a perch farm, Percitech, was created much earlier in 1994. About 20 years later, numerous projects were launched, some with very high expectations (e.g., FjordFresh Holding S/A in Estonia), in numerous European countries; 10 of these enterprises truly developed a commercial activity. Today, most perch farms pursue their activities; only few, mainly in Ireland (country where perch is not consumed), have stopped their activity. The investors that initially believed in this species were not issued from the aquaculture sector and discovered it. Sometimes, it corresponds to industrials that succeeded in other sectors and wants to diversify their activities. This initial distance from the aquaculture sector constitutes one of the reasons of the slow development of perciculture. Learning requires time. Without doubt, the domestication of Eurasian perch was and remained a particular human adventure, where the link between the species and humans is visible at different levels and various forms.
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In terms of perspective, one can expect that this young sector will pursue its development first based on current farms, whose economic viability remains to be demonstrated and second in link with the emergence of new projects and expansion of the market toward new consumers. This new development could imply the production of both pikeperch and perch within the same farms. To support this development, it is imperative to reduce production costs, high in RAS, and secure current stocks. The decrease of cost production will require in priority the onset of selective breeding programs and genetic improvements, a standardization and rationalization of rearing protocols (e.g., percid feeds, ration tables, etc.) and a reduction of investment levels for the development of new perch farms. For some, the development of a monoculture of perch in ponds could be the solution because it will allow a strong decrease in production cost. On the security side, it is important to (i) better know pathologies associated with this species, notably virus, among which some might represent a major risk for percids [143] and (ii) specify the effects of the domestication process on rearing performances of this species. As any other domesticated species, biological responses and performances of perch are modified by the domesticating environment specific to the rearing system chosen and associated rearing practices. Thus, preliminary results indicated that reproductive performances [144, 145] and its sensitivity to stress and immune system [146, 147, 148, 149, 150] depend on farm conditions. In the future, the domesticating context (Figure 2) could strongly vary according to local environment, which could lead fish farmer to choose different rearing systems and to target different markets. Once this main choice realized (context and domesticating direction fixed), secondary choices will define the trajectory of domestication that will result in physiological stage capture in nature, of the dynamic of transition (progressive or sharp) and cultural practices used, practices that could evolve over time with different dynamics. This complexity is reinforced by the fact that a population engaged in a specific domesticating context could change into another context because of a modification in the project, as was the case for perch reared in polyculture ponds, then weaned, and grown in cages or RAS (Figure 2). This diversity of directions and domesticating trajectories should lead to different evolutions (behavior, stress physiology, reproduction, etc.) variable from a context to another. These evolutions could even lead fish farmers to reconsider the initial choice of founding populations, given the enormous genetic diversity available in wild populations [4].
\n
Figure 2.
Diagram explaining the different domestication frameworks and pressures encountered by Eurasian perch during current farming trials (F: Framework, T: Trajectory, P: Path).
\n
\n\n',keywords:"Eurasian perch, domestication, aquaculture, chronology, major steps, rearing system",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66267.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66267.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66267",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66267",totalDownloads:440,totalViews:41,totalCrossrefCites:6,dateSubmitted:"May 11th 2017",dateReviewed:"February 12th 2019",datePrePublished:"May 14th 2019",datePublished:"July 17th 2019",dateFinished:"March 21st 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The farming of percids (Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis, pikeperch Sander lucioperca) has progressively become a diversification path of European inland aquaculture in the past 25 years. This required the domestication of wild or pseudowild (coming from polyculture ponds) populations. Considering the history of Eurasian perch, this domestication can be subdivided into four main successive parts: (1) a short initial prospective period (bibliographical analysis, market analysis, etc.), (2) a first experimental period to acquire basic data that notably resulted in the choice of the rearing system and commercial feeds, (3) a second experimental period allowing to get an in-depth knowledge on each of the main phase of the life cycle of this species (control of the life cycle in rearing conditions), and (4) a third experimental period, still ongoing, of optimization of rearing practices. This chapter allows understanding the domestication framework of this species and better understanding the role of different actors in the decision-making. In the future, the farming of this species is likely to rely on a larger diversity of rearing systems; a key issue is to study the interactions between species-rearing system. How different domestication trajectories or paths (intratrajectories variability) will affect global performances of Eurasian perch remains an open question.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66267",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66267",signatures:"Pascal Fontaine and Fabrice Teletchea",book:{id:"6053",title:"Animal Domestication",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Domestication",slug:"animal-domestication",publishedDate:"July 17th 2019",bookSignature:"Fabrice Teletchea",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6053.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-133-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-174-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-134-1",editors:[{id:"190135",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",middleName:null,surname:"Teletchea",slug:"fabrice-teletchea",fullName:"Fabrice Teletchea"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Why choosing Eurasian perch?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Acquiring knowledge on the biology of P. fluviatilis and P. flavescens",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Study of the life cycle of perch in natural conditions, first zootechnical trials, and choice of the rearing system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Control of the life cycle of Eurasian perch for the development of perciculture in RAS",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Control of the reproduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4. Larval rearing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5. On-growing, nutritional needs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6. Quality of products",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.7. Manipulation of sex and ploidy: genetic management of domesticated populations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Dissemination and knowledge transfer",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. 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Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 2012;28:967-972\n'},{id:"B83",body:'Kestemont P, Mélard C, Held JA, Dabrowski K. Chapter 9. Culture methods of Eurasian perch and yellow perch early life stages. In: Kestemont P, Dabrowski K, Summerfelt RC, editors. Biology and Culture of Percid Fishes: Principles and Practices. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer; 2015. pp. 265-293\n'},{id:"B84",body:'Fiogbé ED. Contribution à l’étude des besoins nutritionnels chez les larves et juvéniles de la perche fluviatile (Perca fluviatilis L.) [thèse de doctorat]. Facultés Universitaires Notre-Dame de la Paix, Namur, Belgique. 1996. p. 334\n'},{id:"B85",body:'Tamazouzt L, Leray C, Escaffre AM, Terver D. Effects of particle size on Perca fluviatilis larval growth. Aquatic Sciences. 1998;60:89-98\n'},{id:"B86",body:'Tamazouzt L, Chatain B, Fontaine P. Tank wall colour and light level affect growth and survival of perch larvae (Perca fluviatilis L.). Aquaculture. 2000;182:85-90\n'},{id:"B87",body:'Jourdan S. Influence de facteurs abiotiques, la photopériode et l’intensité lumineuse, sur la survie et la croissance de larves, post-larves et juvéniles de perche Perca fluviatilis L [thèse de l\'I. N.P.L.]. Nancy. 1999. 147 p\n'},{id:"B88",body:'Awaiss A, Kestemont P, Micha JC. Nutritional suitability of the rotifer Brachionus calyciflorus Pallas for rearing freshwater fish larvae. Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 1992;8:263-270\n'},{id:"B89",body:'Kestemont P, Mélard C, Fiogbé ED, Vlavonou R, Masson G. Nutritional and animal husbandry aspects of rearing early life stages of Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis. Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 1996;12:157-165\n'},{id:"B90",body:'Vlavonou RS. Elevage expérimental de la perche Perca fluviatilis L.: Développement larvaire et croissance [thèse de doctorat]. Université de Metz, France. 1996. p. 48\n'},{id:"B91",body:'Vlavonou RS, Masson G, Moretteau JC. Growth of Perca fluviatilis larvae fed with Artemia spp. Nauplii and the effects of initial starvation. Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 1999;15:29-33\n'},{id:"B92",body:'Kestemont P, Fiogbé ED, Parfait O, Micha JC, Mélard C. Relationship between weaning size, growth, survival and cannibalism in the common perch larvae, Perca fluviatilis: Preliminary data. In: Lavens P, Jaseprs E, Roelants I (eds), Larvi’95, Fish and Shellfish Larviculture Symposium. Eur. Aquacult. Soc. Spe. Pub. 24, Ghent, Belgium, 1995. pp 285-288\n'},{id:"B93",body:'Mélard C, Baras E, Mary L, Kestemont P. Relationship between stocking density, growth, cannibalism and survival rate in intensively cultured larvae and juveniles of perch (Perca fluviatilis). Annales Zoologici Fennici. 1996;33:643-651\n'},{id:"B94",body:'Baras E, Kestemont P, Mélard C. Effect of stocking density on the dynamics of cannibalism in sibling larvae of Perca fluviatilis under controlled conditions. Aquaculture. 2003;219:241-255\n'},{id:"B95",body:'Kestemont P, Jourdan S, Houbart M, Mélard C, Paspatis M, Fontaine P, et al. Size heterogeneity, cannibalism and competition in cultured predatory fish larvae: Biotic and abiotic influences. Aquaculture. 2003;227:333-356\n'},{id:"B96",body:'Ribi G. Perch larvae (Perca fluviatilis L.) survived better in dilute sea water. Aquatic Sciences. 1992;54:85-90\n'},{id:"B97",body:'Bein R, Ribi G. Effects of larval density and salinity on the development of perch larvae (Perca fluviatilis). Aquatic Sciences. 1994;56:97-105\n'},{id:"B98",body:'Egloff M. Failure of swimbladder inflation of perch, Perca fluviatilis L., found in natural populations. Aquatic Sciences. 1996;58:15-23\n'},{id:"B99",body:'Mandiki RSNM, Blanchard G, Mélard C, Koskela J, Kucharczyk D, Fontaine P, et al. Effect of geographic origin on growth and food intake in Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) juveniles under intensive culture conditions. Aquaculture. 2004;229:117-128\n'},{id:"B100",body:'Szczerbowski A, Luczynski MJ, Kucharczyk D. The effect of surface water spray on swimbladder inflation, survival and growth of perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) larvae reared under controlled conditions. In: Grizel H, Kestemont P, editors. Aquaculture and Water: Fish Culture, Shell Fish Culture and Water Usage. Aquaculture Europe’98, Bordeaux, France. European Aquaculture Society Special Publications 26. 1998. pp. 261-262\n'},{id:"B101",body:'Jacquemond F. Sorting Eurasian perch fingerlings (Perca fluviatilis L.) with and without functional swim bladder using tricaine methane sulfonate. Aquaculture. 2004;231:249-262\n'},{id:"B102",body:'Jacquemond F. Separated breeding of perch fingerlings (Perca fluviatilis L.) with and without initial inflated swim bladder: Comparison of swim bladder development, skeleton conformation and growth performances. Aquaculture. 2004;239:261-273\n'},{id:"B103",body:'Alix M, Zarski D, Chardard D, Fontaine P, Schaerlinger B. A detailed investigation of deformities in newly hatched embryos revealed variations among Eurasian perch populations reared in pond or RAS conditions. Journal of Zoology. 2017;302:126-137\n'},{id:"B104",body:'Alix M, Chardard D, Ledoré Y, Fontaine P, Schaerlinger B. An alternative developmental table to describe non-model fish species embryogenesis: Application to the description of the Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis L. 1758) development. EvoDevo. 2015;6(1):39\n'},{id:"B105",body:'Anthouard M, Fontaine P. L’auto-alimentation chez la perche (Perca fluviatilis): Adaptation à cette modalité de nourrissage et mise en évidence du rythme nycthéméral de la prise alimentaire. Ichtyophysiologica Acta. 1998;21:1-13\n'},{id:"B106",body:'Jourdan S, Fontaine P, Boujard T, Vandeloise E, Gardeur JN, Anthouard M, et al. Influence of daylength on growth, heterogeneity, gonad development, sexual steroid and thyroid levels, and N and P retention and waste in Perca fluviatilis. Aquaculture. 2000;186:253-265\n'},{id:"B107",body:'Mélard C, Kestemont P, Grignard JC. Intensive culture of juvenile and adult Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis): Effect of major biotic and abiotic factors on growth. Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 1996;12:175-180\n'},{id:"B108",body:'Fontaine P, Gardeur J-N, Kestemont P, Georges A. Influence of feeding level on growth, intraspecific weight variability and sexual growth dimorphism of Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis L. reared in a recirculation system. Aquaculture. 1997;157:1-9\n'},{id:"B109",body:'Strand Å, Alanårå A, Staffan F, Magnhagen C. Effects of tank colour and light intensity on feed intake, growth rate and energy expenditure of juvenile Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis L. Aquaculture. 2007;272:312-318\n'},{id:"B110",body:'Strand Å, Magnhagen C, Alanårå A. Effects of repeated disturbances on feed intake, growth rates and energy expenditures of juvenile perch, Perca fluviatilis. Aquaculture. 2007;265:163-168\n'},{id:"B111",body:'Acerete L, Balasch JC, Espinosa E, Josa A, Tort L. Physiological responses in Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis, L.) subjected to stress by transport and handling. Aquaculture. 2004;237:167-178\n'},{id:"B112",body:'Jentoft S, Aastveit AH, Torjesen PA, Andersen Ø. Effects of stress on growth, cortisol and glucose levels in non-domesticated Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis) and domesticated rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology. 2005;141:353-358\n'},{id:"B113",body:'Juell JE, Lekang OI. The effect of feed supply rate on growth of juvenile perch (Perca fluviatilis). Aquaculture Research. 2001;32:459-464\n'},{id:"B114",body:'Fiogbé ED, Kestemont P. Optimum daily ration for Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis L. reared at its optimum growing temperature. Aquaculture. 2003;216:243-252\n'},{id:"B115",body:'Fiogbé ED, Kestemont P, Mélard C, Micha J. The effects of dietary crude protein on growth of the Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis. Aquaculture. 1996;144:239-249\n'},{id:"B116",body:'Kestemont P, Vandeloise E, Mélard C, Fontaine P, Brown P. Growth and nutritionnal status of Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis fed graded levels of dietary lipids with and without added ethoxyquin. Aquaculture. 2001;203:85-99\n'},{id:"B117",body:'Xu X, Fontaine P, Mélard C, Kestemont P. Effects of dietary fat levels on growth, feed efficiency and biochemical compositions of Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis. Aquaculture International. 2001;9:437-449\n'},{id:"B118",body:'Blanchard G, Makombu JG, Kestemont P. Influence of different dietary 18:3n-3/18:2n-6 ratio on growth performance, fatty acid composition and hepatic ultrastructure in Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis. Aquaculture. 2008;284:144-150\n'},{id:"B119",body:'Geay F, Kestemont P. Chapter 22. Feeding and nutrition of percid fishes during ongrowing stages. In: Kestemont P, Dabrowski K, Summerfelt RC, editors. Biology and Culture of Percid Fishes: Principles and Practices. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer; 2015. pp. 587-622\n'},{id:"B120",body:'Lucas S. Variations de la composition chimique des tissus de la perche eurasienne élevée en circuit fermé. In: DEA Sciences Agonomiques. Nancy: INPL; 1997. 40 p\n'},{id:"B121",body:'Mairesse G, Thomas M, Gardeur J-N, Brun-Bellut J. Appearance and technological characteristics in wild and reared Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis (L.). Aquaculture. 2005;246:295-311\n'},{id:"B122",body:'Mairesse G, Thomas M, Gardeur J-N, Brun-Bellut J. Effects of geographic source, rearing system, and season on the nutritional quality of wild and farmed Perca fluviatilis. Lipids. 2006;41:221-229\n'},{id:"B123",body:'Mathis N, Feidt C, Brun-Bellut J. Influence of protein/energy ratio on carcass quality during the growing period of Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis). Aquaculture. 2003;217:453-464\n'},{id:"B124",body:'Mairesse G, Thomas M, Gardeur J-N, Brun-Bellut J. Effects of dietary factors, stocking biomass and domestication on the nutritional and technological quality of the Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis. Aquaculture. 2007;262:86-94\n'},{id:"B125",body:'Gardeur JN, Mathis N, Kobilinsky A, Brun-Bellut J. Simultaneous effects of nutritional and environmental factors on growth and flesh quality of Perca fluviatilis using a fractional factorial design study. Aquaculture. 2007;273:50-63\n'},{id:"B126",body:'Thomas M, Mairesse G, Gardeur J-N, Brun-Bellut J. Chapter 33. Concept and determination of quality in percid fishes. In: Kestemont P, Dabrowski K, Summerfelt RC, editors. Biology and Culture of Percid Fishes: Principles and Practices. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer; 2015. pp. 843-864\n'},{id:"B127",body:'Rougeot C, Jacobs B, Kestemont P, Mélard C. Sex control and sex determinism study in Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis. Aquatic Living Resources. 2002;16:90-94\n'},{id:"B128",body:'Rougeot C, Nicayenzi F, Mandiki SNM, Rurangwa E, Kestemont P, Mélard C. Comparative study of the reproductive characteristics of XY males and hormonally sex-reversed XX male Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis. Theriogenology. 2004;62:790-800\n'},{id:"B129",body:'Rougeot C. Chapter 23. Sex and ploidy manipulation in percid fishes. In: Kestemont P, Dabrowski K, Summerfelt RC, editors. Biology and Culture of Percid Fishes: Principles and Practices. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer; 2015. pp 625-634\n'},{id:"B130",body:'Rougeot C, Virumumbalu Ngingo J, Gillet J, Vanderplasschen A, Mélard C. Gynogenesis induction and sex determinism study in Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis, by use of hormonally sex-reversed male breeders. Aquaculture. 2005;243:411-415\n'},{id:"B131",body:'Rougeot C, Minet L, Prignon C, Vanderplasschen A, Detry B, Pastoret P-P, et al. Induce triploidy by heat shock in Eurasian perch, Perca fluviatilis, by use of hormonally sex-reversed male breeders. Aquaculture. 2003;211:81-89\n'},{id:"B132",body:'Ben Khadher S. Etude de la variabilité génétique de populations sauvages et captives de la perche eurasienne Perca fluviatilis, espèce en cours de domestication. Doctorat Université de Lorraine, 2015. p. 232\n'},{id:"B133",body:'Ben Khadher S, Agnèse J-F, Milla S, Teletchea F, Fontaine P. Patterns of genetic structure of Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) in Lake Geneva at the end of the spawning season. Journal of Great Lakes Research. 2015;41:846-852\n'},{id:"B134",body:'Ben Khadher S, Fontaine P, Milla S, Agnèse J-F, Teletchea F. Genetic characterization and relatedness of wild and farmed Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis): Possible implications for aquaculture practices. Aquaculture Report. 2016;3:136-146\n'},{id:"B135",body:'Kestemont P, Mélard C. Chap. 11 - Aquaculture. In: Craig JF, editor. Percid Fishes. Systematics, Ecology and Exploitation. Oxford: Blackwell Science; 2000. pp. 191-224\n'},{id:"B136",body:'Kestemont P, Dabrowski K, Summerfelt RC. Biology and Culture of Percid Fishes: Principles and Practices. Vol. 901. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer; 2015\n'},{id:"B137",body:'Fontaine P. Les marchés de la perche. Journées Techniques Black Bass, Perche, Sandre. Poisy-Chavanod, France. 1996\n'},{id:"B138",body:'Fontaine P. Le grossissement de la perche. Journées Techniques Black Bass, Perche, Sandre. Poisy-Chavanod, France. 1996\n'},{id:"B139",body:'Fontaine P. Production et marché de la perche: Bilan et perspectives. Journées Aquacoles Nationales. Nancy, France. 1997\n'},{id:"B140",body:'Fontaine P. Grossissement de la perche en circuit fermé. Journées Aquacoles Nationales. Nancy, France. 1997\n'},{id:"B141",body:'Toner D, Rougeot C. Aquaculture explained special publication—Farming of Eurasian perch. Vol. 1. Juvenile Production. Bord Lascaigh Mhara. Irish Sea Fisheries Board; 2008. 80 p\n'},{id:"B142",body:'Teletchea F, Fontaine P. Levels of domestication in fish: Implications for the sustainable future of aquaculture. Fish and Fisheries. 2014;15:181-195\n'},{id:"B143",body:'Bigarré L, Plassiart G, de Boisséson C, Pallandre L, Pozet F, Ledoré Y, et al. Molecular investigations of outbreaks of perch Perhabdovirus affections in pikeperch. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 2017;127:19-27\n'},{id:"B144",body:'Kristan J, Stejskal V, Policar T. Comparison of reproduction characteristics and broodstock mortality in farmed and wild Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis L.) females during spawning season under controlled conditions. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 2012;12:191-197\n'},{id:"B145",body:'Khendek A, Alix M, Viot S, Ledoré Y, Rousseau C, Mandiki R, et al. How does a domestication process modulate oogenesis and reproduction performance in Eurasian perch? Aquaculture. 2017;473:206-214\n'},{id:"B146",body:'Douxfils J, Mandiki SNM, Marotte G, Wang N, Silvestre F, Milla S, et al. Does domestication process affect stress response in juvenile Eurasian perch Perca fluviatilis? Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology. 2011;159:92-99\n'},{id:"B147",body:'Douxfils J, Mathieu C, Mandiki SNM, Milla S, Henrotte E, Wang N, et al. Physiological and proteomic evidences that domestication process differentially modulates the immune status of juvenile Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis) under chronic confinement stress. Fish and Shellfish Immunology. 2011;31:1113-1121\n'},{id:"B148",body:'Douxfils J, Desprez M, Mandiki SNM, Milla S, Henrotte E, Mathieu C, et al. Physiological and proteomic responses to single and repeated hypoxia in juvenile Eurasian perch under domestication—Clues to physiological acclimation and humoral immune modulations. Fish and Shellfish Immunology. 2012;33:1112-1122\n'},{id:"B149",body:'Douxfils J, Lambert S, Mathieu C, Milla S, Mandiki SNM, Henrotte E, et al. Influence of domestication process on immune response to repeated emersion stressors in juvenile Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis L.). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology. 2014;173:52-60\n'},{id:"B150",body:'Douxfils J, Mandiki SNM, Mathieu C, Milla S, Kestemont P. Chapter 29. Domestication and responses to stress. In: Kestemont P, Dabrowski K, Summerfelt RC, editors. Biology and Culture of Percid Fishes: Principles and Practices. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer; 2015. pp. 743-760\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Pascal Fontaine",address:"p.fontaine@univ-lorraine.fr",affiliation:'
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6053",title:"Animal Domestication",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Animal Domestication",slug:"animal-domestication",publishedDate:"July 17th 2019",bookSignature:"Fabrice Teletchea",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6053.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83881-133-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-174-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-134-1",editors:[{id:"190135",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabrice",middleName:null,surname:"Teletchea",slug:"fabrice-teletchea",fullName:"Fabrice Teletchea"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"249827",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoko",middleName:null,surname:"Kato",email:"ykato@mail.tohoku-gakuin.ac.jp",fullName:"Yoko Kato",slug:"yoko-kato",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Tohoku Gakuin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Influence of Branching Patterns and Active Contractions of the Villous Tree on Fetal and Maternal Blood Circulations in the Human Placenta",slug:"influence-of-branching-patterns-and-active-contractions-of-the-villous-tree-on-fetal-and-maternal-bl",abstract:"In the human placenta, fetal blood circulates in the blood vessels of the villous tree while maternal one circulates in the intervillous space, the surroundings of the villous tree. Previously, the computational model of the villous tree, whose stem villi actively contract because of the contractile cells, has been developed. The result of the computation indicated that the displacement caused by the contraction would be helpful for the fetal and maternal circulations and can be combined with the other measurements for blood circulations in the placenta. Hypoxia in the placenta is classified into the following categories: preplacental hypoxia, uteroplacental hypoxia, and postplacental hypoxia. The number and the form of the terminal villi are altered by hypoxia. Assuming that increase in the terminal villi causes a higher shear elastic modulus of the placenta, this villous tree model is useful to estimate the influence of hypoxia on the blood circulations. In this chapter, how these three types of hypoxia influence the blood circulation in the placenta by the aforementioned computational model are discussed. While preplacental hypoxia and uteroplacental hypoxia would cause similar displacement in large regions, postplacental hypoxia would do vice versa. All the types might make the fetal and maternal blood circulations difficult.",signatures:"Yoko Kato",authors:[{id:"249827",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoko",surname:"Kato",fullName:"Yoko Kato",slug:"yoko-kato",email:"ykato@mail.tohoku-gakuin.ac.jp"}],book:{title:"Highlights on Hemodynamics",slug:"highlights-on-hemodynamics",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}},{title:"Active Deformation in the Tunic of Halocynthia roretzi: How the Tissue Composed of Cellulose Responds to Stimuli and Deforms",slug:"active-deformation-in-the-tunic-of-em-halocynthia-roretzi-em-how-the-tissue-composed-of-cellulose-re",abstract:"Halocynthia roretzi, belonging to class Ascidiacea, has highly pure and crystalline cellulose Iβ, and sulfated chitin in its tunic. Cells, including hemocytes in the open circulatory system, are scattered in the tunic. The tunic, which maintains its thickness by continuous proliferation and removal, can be classified into active tissues. Recently, it has been reported that various stimuli, such as mechanical stimuli and changes in the mechanical environment, could cause active deformations of the tunic without changes in the characteristics of the tissue structure, which would be associated with influx and efflux of water. In this chapter, the system associated with active deformation, tissue structure and flux of water in the tunic is shown, with reference to the previous reports.",signatures:"Yoko Kato",authors:[{id:"249827",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoko",surname:"Kato",fullName:"Yoko Kato",slug:"yoko-kato",email:"ykato@mail.tohoku-gakuin.ac.jp"}],book:{title:"Plant Stress Physiology",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"92436",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Branislav",surname:"Kolarovszki",slug:"branislav-kolarovszki",fullName:"Branislav Kolarovszki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92436/images/system/92436.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Branislav Kolarovszki, M.D., Ph.D., is the head of the Clinic of Neurosurgery, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, University Hospital in Martin, Slovakia. He has dealt for many years with the issue of pediatric hydrocephalus and evaluation of cerebral circulation by means of Transcranial Doppler sonography in neonates and children with hydrocephalus. He published the results of his work in many scientific journals and three monographs. He actively participates in congresses, including invited lectures on pediatric hydrocephalus and craniosynostosis. Dr. Kolarovszki is a member of editorial boards and a reviewer of medical scientific journals. He is currently the first Vice-Dean of Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava.",institutionString:"Comenius University",institution:{name:"Comenius University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}},{id:"172001",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gaiping",surname:"Zhao",slug:"gaiping-zhao",fullName:"Gaiping Zhao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Shanghai for Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"200252",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodoros",surname:"Aslanidis",slug:"theodoros-aslanidis",fullName:"Theodoros Aslanidis",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/200252/images/system/200252.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Theodoros K. Aslanidis received his Doctor of Medicine degree from Plovdiv Medical University, Bulgaria and his PhD degree from Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. He served in the Hellenic Army Force as a medical doctor and then worked as a rural physician in Outhealth Centre, Iraklia and Serres’ General Hospital, Greece. He moved to Thessaloniki where he completed his residency in anesthesiology in 'Hippokratio” General Hospital, fellowship training at AHEPA University Hospital in Critical Care, and then a postgraduate program in Prehospital Emergency Medicine. He served as EMS Physician and Emergency Communication Center Medic at Hellenic National Centre for Emergency Care before moving to his current post as consultant-researcher at the Intensive Care Unit of St. Paul General Hospital of Thessaloniki, Greece. His research interests are medical writing, data analysis, critical emergency medicine, pre hospital critical care and electrodermal activity.",institutionString:"St. Paul General Hospital of Thessaloniki",institution:null},{id:"225667",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olena Ivanivna",surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"olena-ivanivna-lutsenko",fullName:"Olena Ivanivna Lutsenko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225667/images/system/225667.jpg",biography:"Olena Ivanivna Lutsenko studied the peculiarities of the cardiovascular system in elderly and old people for two years and received her master\\'s degree in biology from Cherkasy National University named after Bohdan Khmelnytskyy. In 2011, she entered postgraduate studies in Cherkasy National University named after Bohdan Khmelnytskyy and began to work on the features of menstrual cycle and its relationship to hemodynamics. She now works on research topics at the Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University of Alexander Dovzhenko and teaches medical and biological disciplines. She has published over 74 scientific works including five textbooks and two monographs. Recent studies focus on women’s menstrual cycle and its relationship with body typology, the period of puberty, and healthcare of the younger generation.",institutionString:"Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University",institution:{name:"Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"242124",title:"Dr.",name:"Shalim",surname:"Uddin",slug:"shalim-uddin",fullName:"Shalim Uddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"268014",title:"Dr.",name:"Te-Ming",surname:"Tseng",slug:"te-ming-tseng",fullName:"Te-Ming Tseng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"273965",title:"MSc.",name:"Shandrea",surname:"Stallworth",slug:"shandrea-stallworth",fullName:"Shandrea Stallworth",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"315969",title:"Dr.",name:"Brooklyn",surname:"Schumaker",slug:"brooklyn-schumaker",fullName:"Brooklyn Schumaker",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Mississippi State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"317036",title:"Ms.",name:"Mary Gracen",surname:"Fuller",slug:"mary-gracen-fuller",fullName:"Mary Gracen Fuller",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Mississippi State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"317170",title:"Mr.",name:"Abu Sayeed Md.",surname:"Hasibuzzaman",slug:"abu-sayeed-md.-hasibuzzaman",fullName:"Abu Sayeed Md. 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BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
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