Ventilation parameters available on the user interface.
1. Introduction
1.1. Context
Mechanical ventilation is a life-saving procedure used for treating acute respiratory distress, when the respiratory system is no longer capable of regulating blood gases via pulmonary gas exchange. While conventional mechanical ventilation (CMV) is often sufficient to transiently replace lung function until recovery, the most severe respiratory distress syndromes must be treated either by non conventional mechanical ventilation such as high frequency ventilation or even non ventilator strategies such as extracorporeal gas exchange (Raoof et al., 2010).
Large literature data suggest a radical change in ventilator support by replacing the traditional gas mixture with a breathable liquid. This method, called liquid assisted ventilation, leads to the replacement of the air-liquid interface in the alveoli by a liquid-liquid interface. Since the 70s, perfluorocarbon liquids (PFC) have been identified as the best candidates to be used in liquid ventilation due to their high oxygen and carbon dioxide solubility (Wolfson & Shaffer, 2005). In addition, they are biochemically stable and bio-inert molecules, available as medical grade products including for respiratory use. Liquid assisted ventilation can be performed either as partial or total liquid ventilation. During partial liquid ventilation, only a fraction of the lungs are filled with perfluorocarbon liquid and a conventional mechanical gas ventilator ensures lung ventilation. In contrast, during total liquid ventilation (TLV), the lungs are completely filled with perfluorocarbon liquid while a dedicated device, called a liquid ventilator, must be used to periodically renew a liquid tidal volume in the lungs. A large number of preclinical studies involving various animal models of acute respiratory distress syndrome have demonstrated clear benefits from total liquid ventilation as compared to all other tested ventilation strategies, including partial liquid ventilation, conventional and high frequency gas ventilation (Hirschl et al., 1996; Wolfson et al., 2008). Among its several theoretical advantages over CMV, TLV is considered less aggressive for the lungs, due to lower positive inspiratory pressures and lower respiratory rates. This is felt to be beneficial in both pediatric and adult respiratory distress syndromes, where repeated alveolar overdistension during CMV contributes to acute and chronic lung injury (Chan et al., 2007; Hayes et al., 2010; Speer, 2009). Moreover, it offers a new means to clean the lung of inflammatory debris (Richman et al., 1992; Foust et al., 1996 Avoine et al., 2011). Consequently, a round table discussion of experts in liquid ventilation has unanimously recommended that a liquid ventilator must be developed for clinical applications (Costantino et al., 2009).
1.2. Problem
In TLV, minute ventilation has been previously reported to be a significant limiting factor for gas exchange (Bull et al., 2009; Matsuda et al., 2003), due to choked flows during expiration, which severely impede lung emptying and greatly decrease tidal volume (Koen et al., 1988; Baba et al., 2004; Robert et al., 2009). Even if the mechanical stresses of the collapses on the airway are not significant (Bagnoli et al., 2007), a decrease in minute ventilation can affect arterial blood gases. Previously, we have shown that the use of a pressure controlled mode prevents choked flows (Robert et al., 2010) and allows maximizing
Many efficient demonstrations of TLV have been performed with different prototypes (Corno et al. 2003; Cox et al. 2003; Degraeuwe et al., 2000a; Hirschl et al., 1995; Larrabe et al., 2001; Meinhardt et al., 2000; Parker et al., 2009; Pohlmann et al., 2011; Sekins et al., 1999; Tredici et al., 2004). With O2 saturated PFC and limited to low minute ventilations (comparatively to CMV), they obtained acceptable ventilation. However, the use of O2 saturated PFC has never been questioned, despite the fact that high concentrations of O2 in the lungs are a well-known factor contributing to acute and chronic lung injury (Hayes et al. 2010; Speer 2009; Tasake et al., 2008). In addition, the use of O2-saturated PFC during TLV often results in hyperoxia. This is particularly deleterious in neonatal medicine in which even a transitory hyperoxia can result in so-called neonatal oxygen radical disease. This disease affects multiple organs including lung, retina, gut and brain and results in acute and chronic morbidities with potential lifelong consequences (Bitterman, 2009; Dorfman et al., 2010; Gitto et al., 2009). Hence, an efficient liquid ventilator with a pressure regulated mode capable of reaching high
1.3. Objective
For the liquid ventilator prototype to reach the readiness level for clinical applications, the objective is dual. From an engineering perspective, it must ensure both targeted minute ventilation and oxygenation. From a medical perspective, it must resemble other conventional ventilators to be operated by clinicians in intensive care units.
Consequently, two distinct objectives are targeted:
Implement a pressure regulation mode, but with a pressure sensor located at the mouth and not in the trachea. Moreover, the proposition is to translate what has been done in CMV to liquid ventilators: inspiration and expiration should be controlled in pressure (Simon et al., 2000). Finally, a control algorithm must prevent large lung volume which may compromise the cardiovascular system or induce a perfluorothorax (rupture of the lungs).
Control the O2 concentration in the inspired PFC, similarly to what is done in CMV with the control of oxygen concentration in inspired air (
2. Description of Inolivent-4
2.1. The prototype Inolivent-4
Following years of research in liquid ventilator development for animal experiments, this study presents the most advanced prototype of liquid ventilator, Inolivent-4 (figure 1). Its design is based on fundamental concepts developed for our third prototype, Inolivent-3 (Robert et al., 2006) and by including the most recent knowledge on flow dynamics in liquid ventilation (Bossé et al., 2010). Inolivent-3 comprises two independent piston pumps and an oxygenator unit which regroups the heating system, buffer reservoir and condenser (used to recuperate the PFC vapors emanating from the oxygenator columns). These concepts have demonstrated their efficiency during animal experiments and were maintained for our following prototype, Inolivent-4. The latter, compared to its predecessors, includes different ventilation control modes like those found on conventional ventilators (Robert et al., 2007b; Robert et al., 2010). From a clinician’s point of view, volume controlled ventilation (VCV) during inspiration and pressure controlled ventilation (PCV) during expiration, greatly simplifies the use of liquid ventilator and minimizes the risk of incorrect ventilation parameter selection which could induce systematic airway collapses and lead to oxygen deprivation.
Parameter | Description | Unit |
Respiratory frequency | RPM | |
Tidal volume | ml | |
Fraction of oxygen in the gas bubbled | % | |
Inspiration time | s | |
End inspiration pause time | % | |
End expiration pause time | % | |
Expiration reference pressure | cmH2O | |
Inspiration reference pressure | cmH2O | |
Upper inspiration limit pressure | cmH2O | |
Lower expiration limit pressure | cmH2O | |
Reference PEEP | cmH2O |
The table 1 presents the basic ventilator parameters accessible on the touch screen user interface. A schematic of the ventilator circuit (figure 1) represents the PFC flow path. Its operation can be described by considering a typical liquid ventilation cycle. The cycle starts when the valve 1 is opened and the valve 2 is closed; a tidal volume of PFC is pumped from the buffer reservoir by the inspiration pump. When the inspiratory pump is ready, the valve 1 is closed, the valve 2 is opened. Then, the inspiratory pump pushes the tidal volume of PFC into the lungs. When the active inspiration phase is completed, the valve 2 is closed. The inspiration pause is when both valves 2 and 4 are closed. Valve 4 is then opened and the active expiration starts: the expiratory pump removes the tidal volume of PFC from the lungs. Finally, the valve 4 is closed to operate the expiration pause. Simultaneously, the valve 3 is opened and the expiration pump pushes the PFC inside the filter which goes to the oxygenator. By overflow, the oxygenated PFC travels to the buffer reservoir. The time parameters (Fr and Ti) and the tidal volume serve as cycle limits. The end inspiration and expiration pauses are used to measure the positive-end inspiratory pressure (PEIP) and positive-end expiratory pressure (PEEP). The duration is proportional (in percentage) to the length of each phase. The upper and lower pressure limits stop the corresponding phase, in case the airway pressure goes beyond these values. The reference PEEP is used by the PEEP controller to correct the inspired or expired volume (see section
The “Y” piece (figure 2) is connected to the endotracheal tube (ET). It includes a mechanical 3 way valve to select the CMV port, the TLV circuit or the closed position. An airway pressure sensor can be located in the ET tube (via an epidural catheter inserted into the Y-piece) to monitor the tracheal pressure. A pressure sensor located in the Y-piece is used to measure the mouth pressure (
All actuators and sensors are connected to a real-time control unit composed of a PC with two analog input boards (PCI-DAS1602, Measurement Computing, USA) and one analog output board (PCI-DAC6703, Measurement Computing, USA). The user interface is a touch screen PC which communicates with the real-time control unit.
2.2. Oxygenator description
Research teams in TLV have mainly used bubble oxygenators (Parker et al., 2009; Sekins et al., 1999; Tissier et al., 2009), commercial membrane oxygenators (Corno et al. 2003; Larrabe et al., 2001; Hirschl et al., 1995; Wolfson et al., 1999, 2008) or have developed membrane oxygenators specifically for TLV (Tredici et al., 2004). However, the requirements for extracorporeal blood oxygenation appear irrelevant in TLV, since there is no mechanical stress to the blood (hemolysis) or bubble infusion in the blood (Iwahashi et al., 2004). Hence, a bubble oxygenator seems acceptable for a clinical use.
The bubble oxygenator of Inolivent-4 is composed of 2 translucent, polycarbonate cylinders, which communicate with each other at the bottom of the inner cylinder (figure 3). When the PFC retrieved from the lung is pumped into the inner cylinder, an equivalent volume of PFC overflows into the outer cylinder and to the buffer reservoir. In this manner, the PFC coming from the lungs is not in direct contact with the PFC going to the lungs. Therefore the PFC residence time in the oxygenator is maximized. The gas to be bubbled flows through a perforated santopreneTM rubber membrane (McMaster, USA) at the bottom of the oxygenator. The latter has approximately 470 perforations made with a 1.2 mm diameter needle, (all equally spaced with a rounded pattern over the entire membrane surface) which generate bubbles into both cylinders (Beaudry, 2009). The stainless steel base contains three 100-watt cartridge heaters (Watlow, St-Louis, USA), which maintain the PFC at the targeted temperature. A condenser on top of the oxygenator liquefies the PFC vapors to minimize evaporative losses.
2.3. Oxygen concentration control
To control the O2 concentration in the bubbled gas (
In order to measure oxygen fraction concentration, a fluorescence sensor (Fibox 3 LCD, PreSens Precision Sensing GmbH, Germany) was used to determine the O2 fraction in the PFC liquid, at the inspiratory (FiPFCO2) and expiratory (FePFCO2) circuit alternately. Data were recorded with the software provided by PreSens (LCDPST3 V1.16, PreSens Precision Sensing GmbH, Germany). The 90th percentile response time of the sensor is 40 s and was measured in-vitro in our laboratory (Beaudry, 2009).
2.4. The pressure controller
2.4.1. The targeted pressure
The pressure controller commands the pumps during the inspiration and expiration to track desired pressure (figure 4) measured at the mouth, with the pressure sensor in the “Y-piece”.
Before the inspiration, the airway pressure is equal to the PEEP which depends on the end-expiratory lung volume (
At the start of the expiration,
2.4.2. The controller
Based on the work presented in a previous publication (Robert et al., 2010), the objective is to insert or remove the PFC liquid from the lungs at a specified pressure reference,
The design of the pressure regulator for the inspiration and expiration was done by loop shaping, using the robust design toolbox of Matlab (Mathworks, USA). The pressure regulator bandwidths were set at 2 Hz. The controller design follows a pole placement procedure where the process plant
The robust control toolbox gave a lag filter coupled with a notch filter. The lag filter cancels the pole and zero of the motor, lungs and ET tube. The notch filter compensates for the tube resonance. Thus, the form of the controller is;
Where
2.5. The PEEP controller
2.5.1. The specifications
The PEEP controller acts on the inspiration and expiration tidal volumes from cycle to cycle. It monitors the volumes inspired, the volume expired and the pressure measured during the end-expiration pause (PEEP). All these measures coupled with the PEEP reference set by the clinician (
It is important to note the difference between the PEEP and the
2.5.2. The algorithm
PEEP regulation can be obtained by controlling the end-expiratory lung volume
As in a conventional mechanical ventilator, the clinician specifies a required PEEP (
A limit is imposed on the estimated PEEP variation but not on the expiratory volume error. The equation 3 is used to estimate the PEEP.
Where
If the volume correction is positive, the volume to be expired for the next cycle is lower than the tidal volume
Where
3. Validation of the oxygenator
3.1. Oxygenator time-constant measurement
The oxygenator is modeled as a first order system characterized by a time constant,
The data was fed to the System Identification Toolbox of Matlab (Mathworks, USA) to identify the time constant values (by selecting a first order linear system) and its 95% confidence interval. The procedure was repeated for different oxygen flows by using incremental values of 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 L/min at a PFC temperature of 39ºC. As can be seen in the table 2, the smallest time constant was 14 seconds at an O2 flow of 8 L/min. Thus, in the worst case scenario when there is no oxygen in the PFC, the concentration reaches 95% of the
0.5 | 167 | 38 |
1 | 77 | 58 |
2 | 41 | 73 |
4 | 22 | 85 |
6 | 17 | 89 |
8 | 14 | 91 |
3.2. An index to evaluate the oxygenator efficiency
To quantify oxygenator efficiency throughout all of the experiments, the following index is computed:
An
Considering the dynamic response of the oxygenator as a first order system, it is possible to write the index of efficiency (6) as a function of the time constant and the ventilator parameters. In the following demonstration, the initial time refers to the instant when the tidal volume
where a=Vt/V0 is the volume ratio,
Where the index defined by (6) is:
An
3.3. In-vivo validation of the oxygenator
3.3.1. In-vivo protocol
The experimental protocol was approved by our institutional Ethics Committee for Animal Care and Experimentation. For the in vivo protocol, five healthy newborn lambs (<4 days old, 2.5-3.6 kg) were intubated, anaesthetized and paralyzed as detailed previously (Robert et al., 2010). The lambs were premedicated by intramuscular injection, orally intubated with a 5.0 or 5.5 mm cuffed endotracheal tube (Mallinckrodt, St. Louis, MO) and restrained in supine position under radiant heat to maintain a central temperature of 39±1°C. The lambs were ventilated with a conventional mechanical ventilator (Servo 300 ventilator, Siemens-Elema AB, Solna, Sweden) in pressure-regulated, volume controlled mode (positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) = 4 cmH2O,
Three different settings were tested using the following parameters. First a reduction in minute ventilation (
Prior to each experiment, the maximum O2 partial pressure value in the PFC,
Statistical values were obtained with the Statistics Toolbox provided with Matlab (Mathworks, USA). Statistical significance was assumed at p < 0.05. The Shapiro-Wilk test was first applied to each group to verify sample normality. The paired Student-t test was used to test a significant difference between two paired groups, after verification that homoscedacity was respected with the two samples F-test. The relationship between
3.3.2. In-vivo results
Upon transfer from conventional gas ventilation (
Decreasing pure O2 flow from 8 to 4 l/min (table 3) did not lead to a significant decrease in
When
3.4. Discussion regarding the oxygenator
Results in the present and previous (Avoine et al., 2011; Beaudry 2009; Robert et al. 2010) studies show that our custom-designed bubble oxygenator can oxygenate PFC at a level up to Fi
Our results highlight elevated PaO
Finally, as expected, our method based on the control of F
This study could be deemed as being limited to a specific PFC, a perfluorodecalin (PFDEC), since another PFC, the perfluoroctylbromide (PFOB), is usually considered as the PFC of choice for TLV. It was used in clinical studies I/II on partial liquid ventilation (Kacmarek et al., 2006; Hirschl et al., 1998, 2002). However, the conclusions should be the same, regardless of the PFC type, since the oxygenator is able to control the gas concentration, reach the desired oxygen fraction in the inspired PFC (Fi
4. Validation of the pressure controller
4.1. In-vivo protocol
The experimentations were obtained with 10 healthy anaesthetized and paralyzed newborn lambs (age < 5 days, weight < 4 kg, 1 hours TLV trial with PFOB or PFDEC). The experimental protocol was approved by our institutional Ethics Committee for Animal Care and Experimentation. The lamb was placed in a supine position and an epidural catheter was inserted in the Y-piece such that the extremity extended 1 centimeter before the ET tube ending. The other end of the catheter was connected to a pressure sensor located at the same height as the ET tube in the trachea. The pressure sensor (Model 1620, Measurement Specialties, Hampton, VA) was used to measure airway pressure P
After randomization, the lungs were filled at functional residual capacity (25 ml/kg) with warmed and oxygenated PFDEC or PFOB. After PFC instillation, total liquid ventilation was initiated in volume-controlled mode (during the first minute) at a rate of 5.35 breaths/minute and a V
4.2. In-vivo results
Figure 7 presents typical results for the pressure regulators during TLV using PFDEC and PFOB. The controllers were able to reach the pressure references, without oscillations. The airway pressure P
There was no airway collapse during the expiration even if the airway pressure was below −10 cmH2O. The airway pressure decreased proportionally during the expiration. This can be explained as the pressure losses in the ET tube decrease with the flow which in turn, decreases exponentially with time, thus resulting in a proportional decrease of the airway pressure over time. The pressure references used during TLV with the PFOB are lower, because the PFOB viscosity is lower compared to the PFDEC, which affects directly the ET tube pressure losses.
The measured PEEP offset can be explained by looking closely at the volumes pumped in the lungs. With PFDEC, the requested tidal volume V
Using equation 3, it becomes obvious that an error on the expired volume will cause a PEEP offset. Since the PFOB is less viscous, it is easier to reach the requested tidal volume V
The table 5 presents the numerical results obtained on 5 newborn lambs (< 4 days old) per PFC group (PFOB and PFDEC). The inspired and expired volume for both groups were similar, but the frequency reached using PFOB was higher, even if the pressure reference and PEEP measured were lower. Again, the viscosity of the PFDEC is the explanation behind these observations. Adequate gas exchange and normal acid-base equilibrium were maintained during TLV.
26.9 | ± 0.6 | 25.9 | ± 0.9 | ||
24.4 | ± 0.7 | 24.9 | ± 0.4 | ||
24.6 | ± 0.6 | 25.2 | ± 0.4 | ||
-0.14 | ± 0.51 | -0.41 | ± 0.05 | ||
2.43 | ± 0.69 | 1.07 | ± 1.00 | ||
152.7 | ± 46.3 | 111.5 | ± 17.3 | ||
-39.1 | ± 8.02 | -32.9 | ± 5.6 | ||
6.14 | ± 0.13 | 6.43 | ± 0.08 | ||
149.7 | ± 5.9 | 160.3 | ± 3.3 | ||
1.8 | ± 0.6 | 1.0 | ± 0.1 | ||
2.1 | ± 0.7 | 1.3 | ± 0.2 | ||
4.5 | ± 1.0 | 2.3 | ± 1.1 | ||
285.0 | ± 67.0 | 288.3 | ± 91.4 | ||
52.9 | ± 10.9 | 37.2 | ± 10.2 | ||
pH | 7.29 | ± 0.11 | 7.39 | ± 0.11 | |
1.0 | ± 0.0 | 1.0 | ± 0.0 |
4.3. Discussion regarding the PEEP-controller
The proposed PEEP controller manages directly the end-expiratory alveolar pressure (by controlling the PEEP) and all the measurable volume errors. However, all measurable volume errors do not include sensor non-linearities, machining tolerances and analog input precisions, so the lung volume can derive positively or negatively, if and only if such volume derivatives have no impact on the alveolar pressure. In the normal case, the control of the end-expiratory alveolar-pressure is equivalent to the control of the end-expiratory lung volume (EELV) because there is a direct relationship between these two variables (Degraeuwe et al., 2000b; Parker et al., 2009).
5. Conclusion
The oxygenator presented at the beginning of this chapter shows that we can control the oxygen fraction of the inspired PFC and removal of all the CO2 contained in the expired liquid. This control of the oxygen concentration, Fi
The choice of a bubble oxygenator could be seen as a limitation, since most research groups use membrane oxygenators with TLV (Corno et al. 2003; Cox et al. 2003; Hirschl et al., 1995; Larrabe et al., 2001; Parker et al., 2009; Pohlmann et al., 2011; Tredici et al., 2004). On the contrary, we strongly believe that bubble oxygenators are quite suitable for TLV. Beyond their low cost and simplicity of use, the present study shows that they can be highly efficient during TLV.
The presented pressure controlled ventilation modes seem similar to those used in conventional gas ventilators, although there are some differences. The PEEP follower maintains the end-expiratory alveolar pressure constant by commanding volume corrections based on the end-expiratory pressure. The pressure references P
There is still room for improvement, as the observed results do not fully comply with the defined specifications. The PEEP controller is able to estimate quite well the real PEEP, but the measured PEEP can increase since the expired volume is not reached. Modifications will be performed to improve PEEP tracking. In some ventilation cycles, the volume expired is not achieved. Thus, the pressure limit Pref,e could be adapted from cycle to cycle to increase the expired volume. Nevertheless, the pressure regulators and PEEP controller have greatly improved the ventilation efficiency and simplified the interaction with the liquid ventilator, since all the volumes and errors are managed by controllers from cycle to cycle.
In the ultimate objective of transferring liquid ventilators into intensive care units (Costantino et al., 2009), we strongly recommend the addition of a gas mixer to the oxygenator (to adjust the O2 concentration) coupled with pressure controlled ventilation mode as two efficient means to maintain normal blood gases during TLV.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported in part by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Foundation of Stars and by the Fonds Québécois de la Recherche sur la Nature et les Technologies. Special thanks to Pulsion Medical System AG (Munich, Germany) for the PiCCO and VoLEF loan. Philippe Micheau, Jean-Paul Praud and Hervé Walti are members of the Centre de Recherche Clinique Étienne-Le Bel, funded by the Fonds de la Recherché en Santé du Québec.
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