Abstract
This chapter aims look at ergonomics from a positive point of view. According to International Ergonomics Association, ergonomics is “the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance”. The major types of ergonomics. Some of them are physical, cognitive, and positive ergonomics. Positive ergonomics: Positive ergonomics refers to a new type of ergonomics that stresses the positive aspects of the man-machine system. Its major interest is to make “human-machine system” enjoyable where the human feels pleasant. Emotional ergonomics: Similar to positive ergonomics, emotional ergonomics refers to a type of ergonomics that pays attention to the emotional aspects of the man-machine system. Spiritual ergonomics: Spiritual ergonomics is based on the idea that spirit is a key factor which determines the employee’s health and success in the man machine system, no matter what he/she is doing in that system. New approach to Occupational health: When considering the legacy of occupational health, we find that two approaches were adopted throughout of its history. These are: professional harmonization and ergonomics approaches.
Keywords
- positive ergonomics
- positive design
- emotional ergonomics
- emotional design
- spiritual ergonomics
- spiritual design
1. Introduction
Since that man was found on the ground, he realized the value of work. Work occupies an important place in human life. It is a key field after school where individual capabilities, competencies, and skills are shown. Also, it may be the main source from which human beings get the financial resources they need for daily life. Similarly, the place of work is where man lives for many years (almost half of his life). In addition, it is the best space in which the individual meets with others and builds different social relations. Equally, work puts the individual in a particular socio-economic level. Finally, work may be a source of happiness or misery. If the work is corresponding with man’s knowledge, skills, abilities, and inclinations and hopes, it is a source of happiness, pleasure, and joy. On the other hand, if disharmony is seen between work and man’s abilities, hopes, inclinations, and ambitions, it becomes a source of misery. Finally, work is the only way for production. You cannot imagine that the trees bear fruit without being maintained by man, and the companies, factories, and industrial institutions do not have production without the work of both employers and employees [1].
To make the work a source of happiness, and to avoid making it a source of misery, work has to be done accompanied by the following conditions:
Assuring work is ergonomically designed.
Coupling work with conviction and faith.
Assuring mastery of work.
Getting rid of hypocrisy at work.
Putting the necessary efforts work needs.
Assuring continuity at work.
Practicing continuous evaluation to work.
Various authors have previously mentioned that ergonomics, especially positive ergonomics, can make workplace a place where employees feel comfortable, happy, calm, and confident with an increased ability to grow and innovate. In addition, they will experience an improved health, greater well-being, promoted excellence, and a better quality of life [2–4]. When workers are having this positive spirit, productivity will most probably flourish and increase. Therefore, it is advised that positive ergonomics should be studied and implemented in the near future [5].
What is ergonomics?
What is positive ergonomics?
What is the relationship of positive ergonomics with occupational health?
2. Approach
A literature search was conducted, using a variety of keywords (ergonomics, positiveness, positive ergonomics, positive design, emotional ergonomics, emotional design, spiritual ergonomics, and spiritual design). This search was conducted as follows: Initially, an electronic search in various databases such as Ergonomics Abstracts, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PsycINFO was conducted. In addition, manual searches were carried out in the majority of ergonomics journals: Applied Ergonomics, Ergonomics, International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, International Journal of Human Computer Studies, Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, New Technology, Work and Employment, Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics, Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing, and Le Travail Humain. The result was a number of scientific papers and books were collected (see references) on which this survey research is based.
3. Results
3.1. What is ergonomics?
Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary science. Therefore, there is no single definition of ergonomics. The reader may find it difficult to choose the right definition. Researchers [9–11] have attempted to confine multiple existing definitions. They also tried to extract the contents of these definitions. Some of the main results were: in the years before 1970, the big focus of ergonomics was on effectiveness. In the years between 1970 and 1979, the focus was still on effectiveness and to some extent on comfort and efficiency. In the years after 1980, the focus is still on effectiveness and other factors, such as safety and usability.
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society [12] introduced four criteria which can be used to choose the most comprehensive definition.
Does the definition reflect the breadth of human factors and ergonomics?
Does the definition comprise both research (theory) and design (application)?
Does the definition reflect the scientific nature of the field?
Is the definition clear and concise?
In the light of these criteria, two definitions are presented. First, Chapanis [13] wrote on human factors and ergonomics: “Both are concerned with designing for human use and apply information about human characteristics, capacities, and limitations to the design of human tasks, machines, machine systems, and environments so that people can work safely, comfortably, and effectively”. After about 45 years, International Ergonomics Association [1] wrote on ergonomics: “Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance” [1].
Looking at these two definitions from the angle of what this chapter advocates, the two definitions, the old and the new, have not clearly stressed the new development in ergonomics (positive, emotional, and spiritual ergonomics).
The development of official ergonomics can be attributed to a great extent to Second World War.
During the war, researchers through analyzing frequent aircraft accidents, which were piloted by experienced pilots, discovered that accidents are caused by the mistakes of the pilots as well as the bad design of the displays and controls of the aircraft.
After the war, the impact on countries, especially the allies, was very heavy with great deaths and destruction. Reconstruction has to be done quickly. Authorities have known that the mission needs a lot of efforts and facilities. Ergonomics that emerged almost after the Second World War was one of the different sciences that have to participate in the construction of affected countries.
During a period of over 60 years, ergonomics has greatly developed. The major developments are:
At the methodological level: Despite the fact that in the early years of ergonomics, most research was using quantitative methods as they are more objective methods [14]. In the twenty-first century, ergonomists felt that there are some ergonomics topics where qualitative methods should be used. Then, a new methodology was widely constituted [15–17].
At the subject matter level, new types of ergonomics have come into being. They are cognitive ergonomics [18, 19], positive ergonomics [20, 21], emotional ergonomics [22–25], and spiritual ergonomics [26, 27].
Besides, ergonomic practices increase the morale of the workers. When workers feel they are being interested in, their morale is boosted, they like the work environment, and most probably, their relationships become stronger.
Classification based upon body part: physical, cognitive, emotional, and spiritual ergonomics.
Classification based upon application area: educational, industrial, agricultural, and service ergonomics.
Classification based upon interest area: traditional and transfer of technology ergonomics.
Classification based upon level of intervention: organizational and individual ergonomics.
Classification based upon type of intervention: positive and negative ergonomics.
Classification based upon subject of intervention: worker-centered and production-centered ergonomics.
It should be noted that the most widely used classification in many ergonomics books and literature is the first one (physical, cognitive, and organizational). However, the problem with this classification is not exhaustive as it excludes emotional and spiritual types of ergonomics and includes another type (organizational ergonomics) that belongs to another classification. It is well-known that a good classification is one that is stable, flexible, exhaustive, and having mutually exclusive classes [34].
3.2. What is positive ergonomics?
Around the mid of the last century, psychology researchers put forward the idea that psychology in addition to studying the negative aspects of human personality should also, study the positive ones. In these instances, the positive psychology movement emerged. According to Gable and Haidt [35], positive psychology is the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions. Previously researchers were more interested in the negative aspects of human personality such as depression, violence, racism, and pessimism, but, less interested in positive aspects such as joy, peace, altruism, humbleness, and optimism. The major aim was not only to return human being to normal, but also to develop different abilities and strengths. The effects of this approach (paradigm shift) did not remain confined to the field of psychology, but surpassed them to the field of ergonomics. In the last few years, researchers began to talk about the positive ergonomics, and the concept of hedonomics appeared.
The key components of positive design are happiness and comfort.
The Hedonic approach to happiness: Happiness is a matter of personal feeling. The more pleasant experiences the individual comes across, the more happiness he has. Everybody feels it in his/ her way depending mainly on his/her personality constitution and social uprising. Some key advocates of this approach are Hobbes [42] and Kahneman et al. [43].
The desire approach to happiness: According to this approach, happiness is dependent on the individual getting what he/ she wants. The more you get of what you want, the happier you are. One of the key advocates of this approach is Davis [44].
The spiritual approach to happiness: This approach dates back to the middle-age philosophy. According to this approach, happiness is achieved when the individual converts his/her soul from acquisitiveness and materialism to complete devotion to God. One of the great advocates of this approach is Al-Ghazzali [45]. In his famous book “The Alchemy of Happiness”, stresses that happiness requires committing oneself to the teachings of the Islamic religion, and avoid committing sins. According to him, there are four main constituents of happiness: self-knowledge, knowledge of God, knowledge of this world as it really is, and the knowledge of the next world as it really is.
The positive psychology approach to happiness: This approach stresses the connection between thinking about happiness and doing what leads to it. One of the representatives of this approach is Seligman. In his 2011 book [46], Flourish: A Visionary New Understanding of Happiness and Well-being, he mentions that the keys to happiness are PERMA that is achieved through: improving (P) positive emotions, (E) engagement, (R) relationships, (M) meaning, and (A) accomplishment.
Ergonomics is an applied area of psychology and engineering which concerns itself with the design of the physical conditions, machines, and other equipment in relation to human capabilities, learning capacities, efficiency, and comfort [47].
Ergonomics is a branch of psychology concerned with the design of environments and equipment that promote optimum use of human capabilities and optimum efficiency and comfort [48].
Ergonomics is the application of information about human characteristics, capacities, and limitations to the design of machines, machine-systems, and environments so that people can live and work safely, comfortably, and effectively. The term also designates the profession that deals with such problems [49].
Ergonomics studies the role of humans in complex systems, the design of equipment and facilities for human use, and the development of environments for comfort and safety [50].
Emotions are intense feelings that generally have well-defined subject (human beings or objects).
Moods are feelings that are less intense as emotions. Besides, they often have no well-defined subject.
Affects are feelings that are either intense (emotion) or moderate (mood) feelings.
Associated with emotional ergonomics, a new concept used in ergonomics, which is hedonomics. According to Hancock et al. [5], hedonomics refers to the scientific study of enjoyable aspects of man-machine system. Since the concept is new, Helander [59] believes that the problem of ergonomists is now to conceptualize hedonomics, to propose theories that can be used for design, and to build appropriate measurement tools.
It is to note that other terms have been given for hedonomics. Blythe et al. [60] used the term “funology”. Jordan [24] used “design for pleasure”, Nagamachi [61], used “Kansei engineering”, and Helander and Khalid [62] used “affective design”.
At the early years of ergonomics, ergonomists were more concerned about physical and cognitive aspects of the system. But, after more than 60 years of ergonomic research, and in response to well spread tendency of positiveness in human sciences, they are very enthusiastic to shed light on the affective side of the man-machine system with the aim of making it pleasurable.
The golden stage (before behaviorism): In this stage, research on emotions flourished at the hands of researchers like Darwin [36], James [37], Spencer [64], and Cannon [65].
The dark stage (behaviorism time): In this stage, researchers stopped research in the emotion subject. In almost 40 years, nothing worthwhile was published. In fact, it was the dominance of the behavioral approach that marginalized the topic of emotions, as it is of little significance [66, 67].
The renaissance stage (from 1960s): In this stage, interest returned again to the topic of emotions which was behind the expansion of conceptual and empirical research, providing a number of influential ideas and theories. One of the influential ideas is what Zajonc [68] had mentioned that emotions function independently of cognition and sometimes it dominates it. Some of the significant theories are: Zajonc theory of emotion [69], the theory of the evolutionary adaptive value of emotions [70], the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions [71], and three levels of product emotion theory [72].
There are a lot of books written about the design, but the books about emotional design are quite new. They are the result of emotion renaissance era mentioned above. Some of these worthy emotional design books are:
Seductive Interaction Design: Creating Playful, Fun, and Effective User Experiences by: Anderson [73].
Designing for Emotion by Walter [22].
Designing Pleasurable Products: an Introduction to New Human Factors by Jordan [24].
Designing Emotions by Desmet [74].
Design and Emotion by McDonagh et al. [75].
Design for Emotion, by van Gorp and Adams [76].
For Norman [77], emotional design has three levels as follows:
3.2.1. First level, the visceral level
3.2.2. Second level, the behavioral level
3.2.3. Third level, the reflective level
Wherever you go, you are plagued with so many products with very different designs. These designs can be good or bad designs. It depends on the user judgments. If a particular design pleases the user, it is a good design. Otherwise it is not. It has been believed that ergonomically designed products are automatically pleasurable products [84]. However, from the emotional design point of view, ergonomically designed products, may be efficient ones, but they may not be pleasing the intended users. In the area of multimedia learning material, it has been found that if learning evokes positive emotions among learners, the learning process will be facilitated [85].
Spiritual people give meaning to life.
Spiritual people do not lose hope.
Spiritual people do not suffer or suffer little stress.
Spiritual people are covered with happiness and contentment.
Spiritual people self-actualize.
The need for meaning and purpose.
The need to give love.
The need to receive love.
The need for forgiveness, creativity, and hope.
On the other hand, in Islam, the very important spiritual needs are:
Needs related to acts of worship such as prayer, and fasting.
Needs related to morality as good dealing with people and honesty.
Needs related to the relationship between the individual and Allah (God) as fear, hope, humility, sincerity, and kindness.
The Spirituality Index of Well-Being by Daaleman and Frey [88].
The Spirituality and Spiritual Care Rating Scale by McSherry et al. [89].
The Spiritual Care Competence Scale by van Leeuwen et al. [90].
3.3. What is the relationship of positive ergonomics with occupational health?
Occupational health refers to a series of actions that aim at protecting workers and reducing the risk of equipment, and machinery and attempting to prevent work accidents, injuries and illnesses, and providing safe work environment. Occupational health intervenes in all areas of life.
In 1957, the first Joint ILO/WHO Committee of Occupational Health assembled, and identified areas of interest in occupational health in the following: (1) the maintenance and promotion of workers’ health and working capacity; (2) the improvement of working environment and work to become conducive to safety and health; (3) the development of work organizations and working cultures in a direction which supports health and safety at work; and (4) the promotion of a positive social climate to smooth operations and enhance productivity of the undertakings [91].
Alli [92] believes that occupational safety and health is “the science of the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, and control of hazards arising in or from the workplace that could impair the health and well-being of workers”.
But how occupational safety tried to implement industrial safety at work environment? When considering the legacy of occupational health, we find that two approaches were adopted throughout of its history. These are: professional harmonization and ergonomics approaches.
To be sure about the effectiveness of twenty-first century occupational health, the two above-mentioned approaches (professional harmonization and ergonomics) are to be sequentially used.
4. Conclusions
The official age of ergonomics is now about 66 years. In this long life, ergonomics has witnessed many developments. Some of them have been on the level of subject matter, for example, cognitive ergonomics in the 1960s, organizational ergonomics in the 1970s, positive ergonomics in the 1980s, emotional ergonomics in 1990s and spiritual ergonomics in the new millennium. Some other developments have been on the methodological level, for example, the use of qualitative methods in the 1980s and mixed methods in the 1990s.
In this chapter, we shed light on subject matter developments where we discussed positive ergonomics with its subsequent design, i.e., the positive design. Then emotional ergonomics with its consequent emotional design were debated. At the end, the newly born development, i.e., the spiritual ergonomics with spiritual design were discussed. Our hope is that future research will ponder greatly into these developments. Time in which these important human personality aspects (emotions and spiritual aspects) have been excluded or left out has gone and may never return.
If ergonomics takes these issues into account, it will not only succeed, but it will spread widely among the people of the earth from different orientations and religions.
References
- 1.
International Ergonomics Association (IEA). Definition and Domains of Ergonomics [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://www.iea.cc/about/index.html [Accessed: 2016-07-12]. - 2.
Hart, P.M. Predicting Employee Life Satisfaction: A Coherent Model of Personality, Work and Nonwork Experiences, and Domain Satisfactions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1999; 84 :564–584. DOI:10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.564. - 3.
Helander, M.G., Khalid, H. & Tham, M.P. (Eds.). Affective Human Factors Design. London: ASEAN Academic Press; 2001. DOI: 10.1177/154193120204601209. - 4.
Martino, O.I. & Morris, N. Positive Ergonomics: Improving Mood Before the Working Day Begins. In: P.T. McCabe (Ed.). Contemporary Ergonomics. New York: CRC Press; 2004, pp. 425–429. DOI: 10.1201/9780203494172.ch77. - 5.
Hancock, P.A., Pepe, A.A. & Murphy, L.I. Hedonomics: The Power of Positive and Pleasurable Ergonomics. Ergonomics in Design. 2005; 13 (1):8–14. DOI: 10.1177/106480460501300104. - 6.
Seligman, M.E.P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. Positive Psychology: An Introduction. American Psychologist. 2000; 55 :5–14. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5. - 7.
Diener, E. & Seligman, M.E.P. Beyond Money: Toward an Economy of Well-Being. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 2004; 5 :1–13. DOI: 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00501001.x. - 8.
Huppert, F., Baylis, N. & Keverne, B. The Science of Well-Being. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 2006. ISBN: 0198567529. - 9.
Licht, D.M., Polzella, D.J. & Boff K.R. Human factors, ergonomics and human factors engineering: An analysis of definitions. Crew System Ergonomics Information Analysis Center; 1989. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4367.3365. - 10.
Wogalter, M.S., Hancock, P.A. & Dempsey, P.G. On the Description and Definition of Human Factors/Ergonomics. In: Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 42nd Annual Meeting; October 5–9, Chicago, Illinois; 1998. pp. 671–674. DOI: 10.1177/154193129804201001. - 11.
Dempsey, P.G., Wogalter, M.S. & Hancock, P.A. Defining ergonomics/human factors. In: W. Karwowski (Ed.). International Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors. 2nd ed. London: Taylor and Francis; 2006. pp. 32–35. DOI: 10.1201/9780849375477.ch7. - 12.
Human Factors and Ergonomic Society (HFES). Definitions of human factors and ergonomics [Internet]. 2012. Available from: http://hfes.org/web/EducationalResources/HFEdefinitionmain.html#govaagencies [Accessed: 2016-07-13]. - 13.
Chapanis, A.R. The Search for Relevance in Applied Research. In: W.T. Singleton, J.G. Fox & D.C. Whitfield (Eds.). Measurement of Man at Work. 1st ed. London: Taylor & Francis; 1971. pp. 1–14. - 14.
Targett, D. Quantitative Methods. 1st ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh Business School, Heriot-Watt University; 2001. - 15.
Hancock, P.A. & Szalma, J.L. On the Relevance of Qualitative Methods for Ergonomics. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Sciences. 2004; 5 (6):499–506. DOI: 10.1080/14639220412331303391. - 16.
Hignett, S. & Wilson, J.R. The Role for Qualitative Methodology in Ergonomics: A Case Study to Explore Theoretical Issues. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science. 2004; 5 (6):473–493. DOI: 10.1080/14639220412331303382. - 17.
Pandve, H.T. Qualitative Research in Ergonomics: An Added Advantage. Journal of Ergonomics (Open access). 2016; 6 :2. DOI: 10.4172/2165-7556.1000e150. - 18.
Falzon, P., Gaines, B.R. & Monk, A.F. Cognitive Ergonomics: Understanding, Learning and Designing Human-Computer Interaction. London: Academic Press Ltd.; 1990. ISBN: 978-0122482908. - 19.
Hoc, J.M. Cognitive Ergonomics: A Multidisciplinary Venture. Ergonomics. 2008; 51 (1):71–75. DOI: 10.1080/00140130701801124. - 20.
Ryff, C.D. & Singer, B. The Contours of Positive Human Health. Psychological Inquiry. 1998; 9 (1):01–28. DOI: 10.1207/s15327965pli0901_1. - 21.
Coelho, D.A. A Growing Concept of Ergonomics Including Comfort, Pleasure and Cognitive Engineering: An Engineering Design Perspective [thesis]. Covilhã, Portugal: Department of Electromechanical Engineering, School of Engineering Sciences, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal; 2002. DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3690.2403. - 22.
Walter, A. Designing for Emotion. 1st ed. New York: Jeffrey Zeldman; 2011. ISBN: 978-1937557003. - 23.
Tzou, R.C. & Lu, H.P. Exploring the Emotional, Aesthetic, and Ergonomic Facets of Innovative Product on Fashion Technology Acceptance Model. Behaviour & Information Technology. 2009; 28 (4):311–322. DOI: 10.1080/01449290701763454. - 24.
Jordan, P.W. Designing Pleasurable Products: An Introduction to New Human Factors. 1st ed. London: Taylor and Francis; 2000. DOI: 10.1162/desi.2002.18.1.87. - 25.
Pimentel, R. Emotional Ergonomics: The Price of Making a Living Shouldn’t Be Your Life [Internet]. 2000. Available from: http://www.miltwright.com/articles/emotionalergonomics_price.pdf [Accessed: 2016-07-13]. - 26.
Delaney, C. The Spirituality Scale: Development and Psychometric Testing of a Holistic Instrument to Assess the Human Spiritual Dimension. Journal of Holistic Nursing. 2005; 23 (2):145–167. DOI: 10.1177/0898010105276180. - 27.
Petchsawanga, P. & Duchon, D. Workplace Spirituality, Meditation, and Work Performance. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion. 2012; 9 (2):189–208. DOI: 10.1080/14766086.2012.688623. - 28.
Wihlidal, L.M. & Kumar, S. An Injury Profile of Practicing Diagnostic Sonographers in Alberta. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 1997; 19 :205–126. DOI: 10.1016/S0169-8141(95)00107-7. - 29.
Winzeler, S. & Rosenstein, B. Orthopedic Problems of the Upper Extremity: Assessment and Diagnosis. American Association of Occupational Health Nurses. 1997; 45 (4):188–202. PMID:9155269. - 30.
OSHA. Solutions for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal Injuries in Foundries [Internet]. 2012. Available from: https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3465.pdf. [Accessed: 2016-07-13]. - 31.
Anton, D. & Weeks, D.L. Prevalence of work-Related Musculoskeletal Symptoms Among Grocery Workers. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 2016; 54 :139–145. DOI: 10.1016/j.ergon.2016.05.006. - 32.
Friedman, L., Krupczak, C., Brandt-Rauf, S. & Forst, L. Occupational Amputations in Illinois 2000–2007: BLS vs. Data Linkage of Trauma Registry, Hospital Discharge, Workers Compensation Databases and OSHA Citations. Injury. 2013; 44 (5):667–673. DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2012.01.007. - 33.
Tompa, E., Dolinschi, R., de Oliveira, C. & Irvin, E. A Systematic Review of OHS Interventions with Economic Evaluations, Vols. 1 and 2. 1st ed. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Institute for Work & Health; 2007. DOI: 10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181b34f60. - 34.
Sinha, V.C., Saxena, J.K. & Gupta, A. Business Statistics. 1st ed. New Delhi: SBPD Publications; 2015. ISBN: 9382883738. - 35.
Gable, S.L. & Haidt, J. What (and Why) Is Positive Psychology? Review of General Psychology. 2005; 9 (2):103–110. DOI: 10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103. 103. - 36.
Darwin, C. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. London: John Murray; 1872. pp. 234–263. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-531-93439-6_11. - 37.
James, W. What is an Emotion? Mind. 1884; 9 :188–205. DOI: 10.1093/mind/os-IX.34.188. - 38.
Wundt, W. Grundirss der Psychologie (Outlines of Psychology). 1st ed. Leipzig: Engelmann; 1896. - 39.
Desmet, P.M.A. & Pohlmeyer, A.E. Positive Design: An Introduction to Design for Subjective Well-Being. International Journal of Design. 2013; 7 (3):5–19. ISSN: 1994-036X (online); 1991-3761 (print). - 40.
Maslow, A.H. Towards a Psychology of Being. 1st ed. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Company; 1962. DOI: 10.1037/10793-000. - 41.
Bremner, R.H. Theories of Happiness: On the Origins of Happiness and Our Contemporary Conception [thesis]. Bonn: Faculty of Philosophy, Rheinische Friedrich Wilhelm University, Bonn; 2011. hss.ulb.uni-bonn.de/2011/2597/2597.pdf. - 42.
Hobbes, T. Leviathan. 1st ed. Indianapolis, Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company; 1994. ISBN: 978-0-87220-178-1. - 43.
Kahneman, D., Diener, E. & Schwarz, N. Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology. New York: Russell Sage Found; 1999. DOI: 10.1.1.121.6695. - 44.
Davis, W. A Theory of Happiness. American Philosophical Quarterly. 1981; 18 :111–120. - 45.
Al -Ghazzali, I.M. The Alchemy of Happiness. 1st ed. USA: SIME Journal; 2004. DOI: 10.1017/S1356186300003771. - 46.
Seligman, M.E.P. Flourish. 1st ed. New York: Free Press; 2011. ISBN 9781439190760. - 47.
Wolman, B.B. (Ed.). Dictionary of Behavioral Science. 1st ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold; 1973. ISBN-13: 978-0127624556. - 48.
Goldenson, R.M. (Ed.). Longman Dictionary of Psychology and Psychiatry. 1st ed. White Plains, NY: Longman Incorporated; 1984. DOI: 10.1108/09504120710737987. - 49.
Chapan is A.R. Human Engineering. In: Holland DT, editor. Encyclopedia Americana. 1st ed. New York: Grolier; 1986. p. 549b. - 50.
Salvendy, G. (Ed.). Handbook of Human Factors. 1st ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1987. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6564(199922)9:3<321::AID-HFM9>3.0. - 51.
Frijda, N.H. The Emotions. 1st ed. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press; 1986. - 52.
Lazarus, R.S. Emotion and Adaptation. 1st ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1991. ISBN: 9780195069945. - 53.
Levenson, R.W. Human Emotion: A Functional View. In: P. Ekman & R.J. Davidson (Eds.). The Nature of Emotion: Fundamental Questions. 1st ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1994. pp. 123–126. ISBN: 0195089448, 9780195089448. - 54.
Oatley, K. & Jenkins, M. Understanding Emotions. 1st ed. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell; 1996. ISBN-13: 978-1557864956. - 55.
Larsen, R.J. & Ketelaar, T. Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Susceptibility to Positive and Negative Mood Induction procedures. Personality and Individual Differences. 1989; 10 :1221–1228. DOI: 10.1016/0191-8869(89)90233-X. - 56.
Spoor, J.R. & Kelly, J.R. The Evolutionary Significance of Affect in Groups: Communication and Group bonding. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations. 2004; 7 :398–412. DOI: 10.1177/1368430204046145. - 57.
Staw, B.M, Sutton, R.I & Pelled, L.H. Employee Positive Emotion and Favorable Outcomes at the Work-place. Organization Science. 1994; 5 :51–71. DOI: 10.1287/orsc.5.1.51. - 58.
Canaff, A.L. & Wright, W. High Anxiety: Counselling the Job- Insecure Client. Journal of Employment Counselling. 2004; 41 (1):2–10. DOI: 10.1002/j.2161-1920.2004.tb00872.x. - 59.
Helander, M.G. Hedonomics–Affective Human Factors Design. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 2002; 46 (12):978–982. DOI: 10.1080/00140130310001610810. - 60.
Blythe M.A., Overbeeke K, Monk A.F., Wright, P.C., editors. Funology: from usability to enjoyment. Springer Science & Business Media; 2004 Oct 13. DOI: 10.1.1.372.6229 - 61.
Nagamachi, M. Kansei Engineering: A New Ergonomic Consumer-Oriented Technology for Product Development. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 1995; 15 :3–11. DOI: 10.1016/0169-8141(94)00052-5. - 62.
Helander, M.G. & Khalid, H.M. Underlying Theories of Hedonomics for Affective and Pleasurable Design. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 2005; 49 (18):1691–1695. DOI: 10.1177/154193120504901803. - 63.
Gendron, M. & Feldman-Barrett, L. Reconstructing the Past: A Century of Ideas about Emotion in Psychology. Emotion Review. 2009;1(4):316–339. DOI: 10.1177/1754073909338877. - 64.
Spencer, H. The Principles of Psychology. 1st ed. London: Williams and Norgate; 1870. - 65.
Cannon, W.B. The James-Lange Theory of Emotion: A Critical Examination and an Alternative theory. American Journal of Psychology. 1927; 39 :106–124. DOI: 10.2307/1415404. - 66.
Clark, M.S. (ed.). Emotion and Social Behavior. Review of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 14. New York: Sage; 1992. - 67.
Watson, D. & Tellegen, A. Towards a Consensual Structure of Mood. Psychological Bulletin. 1985; 98 :219–235. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.98. - 68.
Zajonc, R.B. Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need no Inferences. American Psychologist. 1980; 35 (2):151–175. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.35.2.151. - 69.
Zajonc, R.B. Emotion and Facial Efference: a Theory Reclaimed. Science. 1985; 228 :15–21. DOI: 10.1126/science.3883492. - 70.
Rolls, E.T. A Theory of Emotion, and its Application to Understanding the Neural Basis of Emotion. Cognition & Emotion. 1990; 4 :161–190. DOI: 10.1080/02699939008410795. - 71.
Fredrickson, B.L. The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences. 2004; 359 (1449):1367–1378. DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2004.1512. - 72.
Desmet, P.M.A. Three Levels of Product Emotion. In: International conference on Kansei engineering and emotion research 2010 (KEER 2010); March 2–4 2010; Paris. 2010. - 73.
Anderson, S.P. Seductive Interaction Design: Creating Playful, Fun, and Effective User Experiences. Berkeley, CA, USA: New Riders; 2011. ISBN-13: 978-0321725523. - 74.
Desmet, P.M.A. Designing Emotions. 1st ed. The Netherlands: TU Delft, Delft; 2002. ISBN: 90-9015877-4. - 75.
McDonagh, D., Hekkert, P., van Erp, J. & Gyi, D. Design and Emotion. 1st ed. USA: CRC Press; 2004. DOI: 10.1080/09544820902915300. - 76.
van Gorp, T. & Adams, E. Design for Emotion. 1st ed. London: Elsevier; 2012. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-386531-1.00001-6. - 77.
Norman, D.A. Emotion and Design: Attractive Things Work Better. Interactions Magazine. 2002; 4 (4):36–42. DOI: 10.1145/543434.543435. - 78.
Schoormans, J.P.L. & Robben, H.S.J. The Effect of New Package Design on Product Attention, Categorization and Evaluation. Journal of Economic Psychology. 1997; 18 :271–287. DOI: 10.1016/S0167-4870(97)00008-1. - 79.
Yamamoto, M. & Lambert, D.R. The Impact of Product Aesthetics on the Evaluation of Industrial Products. Journal of Product Innovation Management. 1994; 11 (4):309–324. DOI: 10.1111/1540-5885.1140309. - 80.
Nanda, P., Bos, J., Kramer, K.L., Hay, C. & Ignacz, J. Effect of Smartphone Aesthetic Design on Users' Emotional Reaction: An Empirical Study. The TQM Journal. 2008; 20 (4):348–355. DOI: 10.1108/17542730810881339. - 81.
Mehta, A. & Purvis, S.C. Reconsidering Recall and Emotion in Advertising. Journal of Advertising Research. 2006; 46 (1):49–56. DOI: 10.2501/S0021849906060065. - 82.
McDuff, D., El Kaliouby, R., Kodra, E. & Picard, R. Measuring Voter’s Candidate Preference Based on Affective Responses to Election Debates. In: Humaine Association Conference on Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction (ACII); September 2013; NewYork, USA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; 2013. pp. 369–374. DOI: 10.1109/ACII.2013.67. - 83.
Hazlett, R.L. & Hazlett, S.Y. Emotional Response to Television Commercials: Facial EMG Vs. Self-Report. Journal of Advertising Research. 1999; 39 (2):7–23. - 84.
Iqbal, M., Iqbal, S.A., Mustafizur Rahman, A.N. & Samsuzzoha, A.H.M. Ergonomics and Design. In: Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; January 22–24, 2011; 2011. - 85.
Heidig, S. Müller, J. & Reichelt, M. Emotional Design in Multimedia Learning: Differentiation on Relevant Design Features and their Effects on Emotions and Learning. Computers in Human Behavior. 2015; 44 :81–95. DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.009. - 86.
Cacioppe, R. Creating Spirit at Work: Re-visioning Organization Development and Leadership-Part I. Leadership and Organization Development Journal. 2000; 21 (2):48–54. DOI: 10.1108/01437730010318200. - 87.
Highfield, M.F. & Cason, C. Spiritual Needs of Patients: Are They Recognized? Cancer Nursing. 1983; 6 (3):187–192. PMID: 6190552. - 88.
Daaleman, T.P, Frey, B.B. The Spirituality Index of Well-Being: A New Instrument for Health-Related Quality-of-Life Research. Annals of Family Medicine. 2004; 2 :499–503. PMID: 15506588. - 89.
McSherry, W., Draper P. & Kendrick D. The Construct Validity of a Rating Scale Designed to Assess Spirituality and Spiritual Care. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2002; 13 (7):723–734. PMID: 12231029. - 90.
van Leeuwen, R., Tiesinga, L.J., Middel, B., Post, D. & Jochemsen, H. The Validity and Reliability of an Instrument to Assess Nursing Competencies in Spiritual Care. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2009; 18 (20):2857–2869. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2702.2008.02594.x. - 91.
Board, 20. 1957 Report of the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health. 1st ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1957. - 92.
Alli, B.O. Fundamental Principles of Occupational Health and Safety. 1st ed. Geneva: International Labour Office; 2008. ISBN: 9221204545. - 93.
Friend, M.A. & Kohn, J.P. Fundamentals of Occupational Safety and Health. 6th ed. London: Brenan Press; 2014. ISBN-13: 978-0-86587-171-7. - 94.
Visser, E., Pijl, Y.J., Stolk, R.P., Neeleman, J., Rosmalen, J.G.M. Accident Proneness, Does it Exist? A Review and Meta-Analysis. Accident Analysis and Prevention. 2007; 39 :556–564. DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2006.09.012. - 95.
Rachman, S. A Cognitive Theory of Obsessions. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 1997; 35 (9):793–802. PMID: 9299799. - 96.
Connaughton, D., Wadey, R., Hanton, S. & Jones, G. The Development and Maintenance of Mental Toughness: Perceptions of Elite Performers. Journal of Sport Sciences. 2008; 26 :83–95. DOI: 10.1080/02640410701310958. - 97.
OSHA. Ergonomics: The Study of Work. 1st ed. USA: U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health Administration; 2000. - 98.
Burri Jr., G.J. & Helander, M.G. A Field Study of Productivity Improvement in the Manufacturing of Circuit Boards. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 1991; 7 :207–215. DOI: 10.1016/0169-8141(91)90004-6. - 99.
Corlett, E.N. Are You Sitting Comfortably? International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics. 1999; 24 :7–12. DOI: 10.1016/S0169-8141(98)00083-3.