Genes aberrantly expressed with hypo/hypermethylated promoter in gastric cancer.
1. Introduction
Gastric cancer remains a common cancer type in humans to dates, especially in the Andean region of South America and in the Far East. Various factors contribute to cause of stomach cancer, including
The complex interaction among different etiological factors leads to genetic and epigenetic alterations of proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes. Epigenetic regulation includes histone modification and DNA methylation, which involved in regulation of cell growth and development in mammals. Global DNA hypomethylation events were discovered in the human tumor in the early 1980s, and promoter hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes were identified in cancer cells in mid 1990s.
Alteration of DNA methylation in the genome is found in almost types of cancer and can lead to change gene expression, such as over-expression of oncogenes and down-regulation of tumor suppressor genes during cancer progression. Promoter methylation is an alternative mechanism of gene silencing in human tumorigenesis. Although a number of methylated genes have been found in gastric cancer, useful methylation markers for early diagnosis and prognostic evaluation of cancer.
2. Clinical features, epidemiology, pathogenesis and progression of gastric cancer
2.1. Epidemiology
The incidence of stomach cancer is declining in most parts of the world, although it is ranked fourth after lung, breast, and colorectal cancer. A total of 989,600 new stomach cancer cases and 738,000 deaths are estimated to have occurred in 2008, accounting for 8% of total cancer cases and 10% of total cancer-related deaths [1]. The declining incidence is associated with factors related to the increased availability of refrigerated fresh foods and a decline in the consumption of those preserved using salt. The incidence rate varies substantially among countries. High incidence rates occur in East Asia, Eastern Europe, and South America. Regional variations reflect differences in dietary patterns (e.g., low intake of fruits and vegetables, and high intake of salt, nitrates, salt-cured fish, and smoked meat). Several other risk-implicated factors include
2.2. Pathology
More than 95% of stomach cancers are adenocarcinomas. Other malignant tumors are rare and include carcinoid tumors, squamous cell carcinoma, adenoacanthoma, small cell carcinoma, mucinous carcinoma, and leiomyosarcoma. Although malignant lymphoma of the stomach is a relatively rare stomach neoplasm, it is the most common extranodal site for lymphomas of the gastrointestinal tract. It is potentially associated with
2.3. Staging
There are currently 2 classification systems in use for staging stomach cancer. The Japanese classification is based on anatomic locations and the extent of the regional lymph [3]. The other staging system was developed by the International Union against Cancer and the American Joint Commission on Cancer. Tumor stage is determined based on tumor invasion depth, whereas nodal stage is determined by the number of positive lymph nodes [4]. Advances in diagnostic modalities such as endoscopic ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and laparoscopy have improved preoperative clinical staging. Classification provides useful information for tailoring initial treatment strategies.
2.4. Treatment
2.5. Prognosis
Gastric cancer (GC) is frequently diagnosed at an advanced stage. The prognosis of advanced cancer remains poor. Prognosis has improved only modestly during the previous two decades, attributable to advances in surgical treatment, postoperative care, and multimodal therapy. In the United States, the 5-year survival rate for all stages was 27% between 2001 and 2007, compared to 15% between 1975 and 1977 [8]. Local recurrence and distant metastases are the 2 primary areas of treatment failure in patients. After attempting curative resection, recurrence was local or regional in 40% of cases and distant in 60% [9].
Recent advances in genomic science have enabled the identification of detailed molecular mechanisms of stomach carcinogenesis and its progression. These techniques have been used to identify markers for early detection of stomach cancer. A better knowledge of the molecular bases will lead to new paradigms and potential therapeutic improvements. It can provide better information on potential tumor aggressiveness and assist in the personalization of treatment strategies for better outcomes.
3. Principle of DNA epigenetic modification, DNA methylation and detection
3.1. Genomic DNA methylation/demethylation
3.1.1. DNA methylation
Epigenetic regulation, including histone modification and DNA methylation, has a critical role in regulating cell growth and development in mammals [10, 11]. DNA methylation involves the regulation of gene expression by establishing and maintaining DNA methylation status at the promoter of critical genes. DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) catalyze the covalent addition of methyl groups to 5-position of cytosine (5-methylcytosine; 5mC) bases in newly synthesized DNA (Fig. 1. Cytosine of CpG dinucleotides can be methylated by DNMTs to form 5mC, which use S-adenosyl methionine as a donor for the methyl group. In mammalian cells, DNMTs genes are classified into de novo (DNMT3A and DNMT3B) and maintenance (DNMT1), and function in printing methylation genome maps [11]. DNMT1 is highly expressed in differentiated cells and efficiently hemi-methylated DNA during DNA replication. DNMT3A and DNMT3B are most abundant in embryonic stem cells and have low expressions in differentiated cells [12].
3.1.2. DNA demethylation
Tahiliani et al. [13] identified the leading enzyme (ten-eleven-translocation, TET) that can convert 5mC to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC). Three TET proteins (TET1, TET2, and TET3) can convert 5mC to (5hmC), leading to DNA demethylation [14]. 5hmC is a potentially key intermediate in a possible active DNA demethylation process through DNA repair mechanisms. 5hmC is generated from oxidized 5mC, and has a critical role in stem/progenitor cell differentiation [11, 15-23]. The role of 5hmC in gene regulation is a crucial issue that is potentially associated with gastric cancer progression; however, its biological function in gastric cancer is unknown.
3.2. DNA methylation-regulated genes in gastric cancer
3.2.1. Protein coding genes
Global DNA hypomethylation events that occur primarily at DNA-repetitive regions and hypermethylation at specific promoter CpG islands of tumor suppressor genes are frequently observed in human tumors [10]. In gastric cancer, DNA methylation contributes to cancer progression and leads to aberrantly silencing expression of tumor suppressor genes, or oncogene reactivation [24]. Park et al.[25] profiled a global DNA methylation of gastric cancer using a methylated DNA enrichment technique and performed an analysis using a next-generation sequence approach. Gastric cancer was associated with hypermethylation of 5' CpG islands and the 5'-end of protein-coding genes, as well as hypomethylation of DNA-repetitive elements. During recent decades, a gain or loss of DNA methylation at the promoter of protein-coding gene events has been continuously studied. Numerous studies have implicated an aberrant expression of methylation-associated genes involved in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer (Table 1). E (epithelial)-cadherin gene promoter hypermethylation has frequently been observed in human gastric cancers, and methylation status has been associated with deceased expression in gastric carcinogenesis [26]. Sudo et al. also reported that promoter methylation-mediated silencing of the E-cadherin gene was closely associated with the development of Epstein-Barr virus-associated gastric carcinoma [27]. Similarly, several studies have shown that the accumulation of DNA methylation in promoter regions of tumor suppressor genes may alter cell cycle, growth, and motility, as well as adhesion molecules by silencing critical gene expression (including p16, p15, DAPK, RUNX3, MLH1, Table 1). In contrast to tumor suppressor genes, loss of DNA methylation has frequently occurred in oncogene promoter regions and leads to aberrant overexpression in gastric cancer, such as S100A6, S100A4, VEGF-C, PAR2, SNCG, and MAGE-A1-3 (Table 1).
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Protein-coding genes | CXCL12, CDH1, ZNF331, EDNRB, SOX9, PTPN6, MOS, DCC, CRK, VAV1, MLF1, MGMT, p16, RASSF2, hMLH1, HAND1, HRASLS, TM, FLNc, ALX4, TMEFF2, CHCHD10, IGFBP3, NPR1, GKN1, RASAL1, PAX5, SFRP1, GPX3, ADAMTS9, S100A6, EphA1, p14, DAPK, WWOX, TCF4, RUNX3, CHFR, RECK, BMP3, HACE1, PGP9.5, APC, VIM, MGMT, PTCH1a, RASSF2A, S100A4, PKD1, TMS1, RUNX3, ER, p15, EphA7, NID1, NID2, HHIP, VEGF-C, FHIT, MTAP, PLAGL1, PAR2, DFNA5, RASSF1A, CTNNB1, MTSS1, LIMS2, SNCG, MAGE-A1, MAGE-A2, MAGE-A3, CASP1, COX-2, Syk, ITGA1, SOCS-1, SERPINB5, PTEN | [40, 45-47, 51, 54, 57, 60, 61, 65, 75-112] |
Small nonprotein-coding genes | miR-1,miR-9, miR-10b, miR-18b, miR-34b/c, miR-124a, miR-129, miR-137, miR-148a, miR-152, miR-155, miR-181c, miR-196b, miR-203, miR212, miR512, miR-516a | [29, 34, 35, 38, 39, 113-123] |
3.2.2. microRNA
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous non-protein-coding RNAs of short 21-23 nucleotides [28]. Abnormal miRNA expression has a critical role in gastric cancer progression. However, miRNA transcription mechanisms are similar to classic protein-coding genes; the hypermethylated promoter region of tumor-suppressive miRNAs may result in gastric cancer formation and progression. Our previous studies identified several methylation-associated miRNAs through AGS treated with a demethylation agent [29, 30]. Among these miRNAs, we first observed a primate-specific miRNA cluster (C19MC) comprising 46 pre-miRNAs, which could be co-regulated depending on the methylation status of its distal CpG-rich domain in placenta tissue [30, 31]. C19MC expression has been shown to display a maternal-specific methylation imprint acquired in oocytes [31]. We also recently identified several tumor-suppressive miRNA that were regulated with aberrant DNA methylation in gastric cancer (Figure 2). Expression of miR-1, miR-9, miR-129, and miR-34b/c was suppressed by DNA hypermethylation, and miR-196b was overexpressed with hypomethylation in gastric cancer [29, 32-35]. Numerous other studies have shown that several tumor-suppressive miRNAs contain the aberrant hypermethylation of their promoter regions in gastric cancer, including miR-9, miR-34b/c, miR-129, miR-137, miR-181c, miR-199a, miR-212, miR-512, and miR-516 [29, 30, 34-40].
4. Promoter methylation of given genes versus clinical significance and prognostic values and therapeutic applications
Promoter methylation is an alternative mechanism of gene silencing in human tumorigenesis. Although a number of methylated genes have been observed in gastric cancer, useful methylation markers for early diagnosis and prognostic evaluation of gastric cancer remain unknown [41, 42]. Although the clinical outcome of gastric cancer has gradually improved, the prognosis of patients at the advanced stage remains poor. The prognosis varies widely in gastric cancer patients for undetermined biologic reasons. Thus, a greater understanding of the pathogenesis and molecular mechanisms of gastric cancer may lead to novel diagnostic, therapeutic, and preventive strategies [41, 43]. Gastric carcinogenesis is a multistep process that includes numerous genetic and epigenetic alterations, such as activation of oncogenes, overexpression of growth factors and receptors, and inactivation of tumor suppressor genes. In addition to genetic alterations, epigenetic alterations such as DNA methylation of CpG islands are involved in cancer development and progression. Promoter methylation is regarded as one of the primary mechanisms to inactivate tumor-related genes, along with gene mutation and deletions, ultimately leading to carcinogenesis. Promoter methylation is a critical hallmark of cancer cells, and has a significant role in tumor transformation and progression, impacting the clinical course of the disease. Although promoter methylation of a number of cancer-related genes, including tumor suppressor genes, has been observed in gastric cancer and precancerous lesions, epigenetic inactivation of genes related to tumor initiation and progression has not been well studied in gastric cancer outcome [41].
4.1. Gene methylation and its impact on clinical outcome in gastric cancer
Using methylation-specific polymerase chain reactions (MSP) and quantitative methylation-specific polymerase chain reactions (Q-MSP), the promoter methylation of specific genes is examined, as well as their association with clinical outcomes of gastric cancer. Inactivation of tumor suppressor genes and activation of oncogenes caused by genetic and epigenetic alterations are known to play a significant role in carcinogenesis. An increasing amount of evidence shows that epigenetic silencing of the tumor suppressor genes, particularly caused by hypermethylation of CpG islands in promoters, is critical to carcinogenesis and metastasis. Here, we detail recent progress in the study of methylations of tumor suppressor genes involved in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer.
4.2. Hypermethylation profiling
DNA methylation has been studied extensively in gastric cancer. However, most studies have focused on aberrant methylation in a single gene. Because methylated genes rarely occur more frequently in groups than in isolation, the concept of a CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP) in gastric. CIMP has been defined as a subset of malignancies that show widespread hypermethylation of multiple promoter CpG island loci [60].
More recently, microarray technology has made it possible to comprehensively analyze gene expression profiles [56, 61-64]. Representational difference analysis (RDA) is also used to screen differentially methylated DNA sequences between gastric primary tumor and metastatic lymph nodes [65, 66]. By using these techniques, the expression levels of thousands of genes can be analyzed in a single experiment. These technologies are a powerful tool for analyzing gene expression profiles related to the development and progression of specific diseases. Although there have been significant improvements in the analysis of genetic alterations for gastric cancer, there is insufficient information on understanding a common pathway for the development and progression of gastric cancer. Gastric cancer has diverse clinical properties such as histological type, metastatic status, race, and sex. Thus, further exploration to search for genetic alterations in gastric cancer is required.
5. Cirulating DNA methylation as biomarkers
Previous studies have demonstrated that tumor cells can release DNA to peripheral blood and enriched circulating DNA level can be observed in the serum of cancer patients, several times higher than the reference range. Previous studies have detected methylated DNA of multiple gene promoters in blood plasma, urine, sputum and peritoneal washes in several different cancers, and high-frequency hypermethylation of tumor suppression is mostly cancer-specific; therefore, it may be used as a molecular diagnostic marker of cancer [67-74]. Numerous studies have attempted to detect circulating methylated DNA from body fluid as a good biomarker for prognosis and diagnosis of gastric carcinoma (Table 2). Detection of promoter regions hypermethylation of candidate genes FAM5C, MYLK, RUNX3, TFP12, RASSF1A, p16 and CDH1 in the serum have been applied to predict the clinical features of gastric cancer patients. Furthermore, DNA methylation of BNIP3, CHFR, CYP1B1, MINT25, SFRP2, RASSF2, p16, RUNX3, CDH1, hMLH1, ABCG2, BNIP3, and RECK in peritoneal fluid form gastric cancer patients has been analyzed using quantitative methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction and as a good biomarker for the diagnosis and detection of gastric cancer. Thus, circulating methylated DNA can reflect the real methylation status of candidate gene promoters in gastric cancer tissue by examining body fluid. Therefore, releasing methylated DNA fragments has a high potential as a novel biomarker for the detection and recurrence monitoring of gastric cancer.
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serum | FAM5C, MYLK, RUNX3, TFP12, RASSF1A, p16, CDH1, DAPK, GSTP1, p15 | [120, 124-127] |
Peritoneal fluid | BNIP3, CHFR, CYP1B1, MINT25, SFRP2, RASSF2, p16, RUNX3, CDH1, hMLH1, ABCG2, BNIP3, RECK | [55, 120, 128, 129] |
6. Conclusion
Gastric cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death in China. Although the molecular mechanisms of gastric carcinogenesis are unclear, epigenetic silencing of tumor-related genes by promoter hypermethylation has recently emerged as a crucial mechanism of tumorigenesis. The promoter hypermethylation profile differs among cancer types and within each gene, providing tumor type- and gene-specific hypermethylation profiles that may be involved in the corresponding molecular mechanism of tumorigenesis. The identification of a novel gene targeted by promoter hypermethylation may provide insights into mechanisms for the inactivation of tumor-suppressive pathways and is critical for the identification of tumor markers in gastric cancer [42, 43]. Currently, DNA methylation markers have been used in early detection, prognosis, and prediction of response to cancer therapy.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the grants from the Kaohsiung Veterans General Hospital Research Program, Kaohsiung, Republic of China, Taiwan (VGHKS100-124 to Hung-Wei Pan, VGHKS100-058 to Chung-Man Leung, and VGHKS101-010 to Kuo-Wang Tsai).
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