Abstract
Candida albicans is a member of the human host’s microbiome composition; therefore, it is recognized as a portion of the human host body’s normal flora in a homeostasis condition. However, when the host develops an abnormal condition, e.g., immune deficiency, C. albicans acts as an opportunistic pathogen. C. albicans has an effective arsenal of a wide range of virulence factors. Due to this knowledge, the enzymes construct a significant portion of substantial fungal virulence factors, which are made of proteins and play an essential role in fungal invasion, fungal-hyphal growth, and biofilm formation. An active secreted protein should be processed via the fungal secretion system, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and/or Golgi apparatus (GA). In other words, an active protein that acts as a fungal virulence factor should undergo several vital and pivotal maturation processes, including glycosylation and folding. In this chapter, we have a rigorous look at these processes, which directly determine the pathogenesis of C. albicans.
Keywords
- Candida albicans
- pathogenesis
- secretory pathways
- glycosylation
- virulence factors
1. Introduction
Fungi, including
2. Pan-genome of Candida albicans
In comparative genomic analyses, both eukaryotes and prokaryotes possess genomic pools composed of core- and accessory genomes. Usually, the core genome comprises those genes (housekeeping genes) that contribute to essential life activities, including reproduction, metabolism, cell division, virulence, and pathogenesis [9, 10]. On the other hand, the accessory (flexible, dispensable, and adaptive) genome contains genes that participate in specific functions, e.g., antibiotic resistance, specific metabolic pathways, and particular virulence, for the cell adaptation to its environment [9, 10]. The accessory genes are not present in all genomes but are usually detectable in ≥2 genomes. Hence, the genomic plasticity of the organisms is directly associated with mobile genetic elements [9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. Evolutionary biology studies depict two groups of genes, including analogous and homologous genes. The comparable genes appear through an independent converged evolutionary process, while the homologous genes appear through an effective evolutionary process with identical origination from a similar ancestor. Furthermore, homologous genes are classified into two groups: paralogous genes, the outcome of the mutation feature, and orthologous genes – the outcome of evolutionary speciation [9, 10]. The results show that
3. Translocation
The secretory pathway fully mediates the virulence and the pathogenesis of pathogenic fungi like
4. Glycosylation
The glycosylation process begins with the quality control of a protein within the ER, which is the first section of the secretory pathway to check and mature the related proteins that are supposed to be glycosylated. On the other hand, the GA has been recognized as the leading center for glycosylation [22]. Indeed, the GA, recognized as the central hub of the cellular secretory machinery system, is made of different cisternae comprising the
Although glucan (α-(1,3)) is a practical construction in fungal cell wall structure and is associated with human fungal pathogens, it is absent in the cell wall structure of
By recorded reports, a portion of the cell wall dry weight in
5. Protein glycosylation pathways
As aforementioned, the cell wall biosynthetic pathways in
The biosynthetic pathway of
Indeed, Dolichol, composed of isoprene units, contributes to protein glycosylation modifications as a lipidic portion of the intermediates. The oligosaccharide of Dol-PP-GlcNAc2Man5 is produced by a combination of the sugar of mannose (Man) and
The glycosylated proteins within the ER lumen move to GA to complete the glycosylation process. In this regard, the newly arrived glycoproteins into the Golgi complex undergo a new glycosylation process in which further mannose residues are linked. To catalyze this process, the Golgi-related α-1,2-mannosyltransferase enzymes -known as GDP-mannose-dependent mannosyltransferases – contribute to this catalytic reaction. The genes of
The fungal
6. Conclusion
The secretory system of
Acknowledgments
The authors have special thanks to IntechOpen publisher for the kind invitation. We also appreciate Antonija Grgec, the Publishing Process Manager of the present book project, for her brilliant support. Figures 1 and 3 are directly taken from biorender.com. Hence, the authors are obliged to biorender.com, too.
Author contribution
The authors have contributed to the present chapter. All the authors have read and approved the latest version of the chapter.
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