Effect of biochar addition on soil physicochemical properties and plant growth.
Abstract
Soil as a renewable resource has a key role to play in sustainable crop production, soil management, and combating food insecurity. The overapplication of fertilizers in this regard has resulted in decreased soil health and productivity. Biochar application in this respect has received increasing attention of the scientific community due to its role in soil quality improvement. This is especially true in the face of global climate change and to the nature of biochar being a carbon (C)-rich compound. In this chapter, the potential of biochar to enhance soil quality attributes, particularly those pertaining to soil’s physical, chemical, and biological properties, is comprehensively reviewed. Special attention is directed toward the distinctive properties of biochars sourced from various feedstocks, elucidating their subsequent effects on soil quality. This sheds light on potential directions for future studies in this field.
Keywords
- biochar
- soil health
- sustainable environment
- soil improvement
- soil quality
1. Introduction
Climate change negatively impacts crop growth. Salinized, weak alkaline soils; temperature fluctuations; and latitudinal factors require urgent scientific attention [1, 2]. Soil, a complex ecosystem, plays a vital role in agriculture, ecosystem services, climate change mitigation, landscape protection, and human development [3, 4]. Long-term cultivation can lead to degradation, resulting in reduced soil organic matter, severe erosion, and diminished aggregate stability [5, 6]. Soil quality directly impacts ecosystems, affecting crop production, biota, and human well-being, contributing to a healthy environment [7, 8]. Various factors, including pollution levels, bacterial activity, climate, and land use, can alter soil characteristics [9]. Green approaches, like soil amendment, offer effective means to reduce salinity by enhancing physical and chemical properties and nutrient distribution. These approaches also promote microorganism growth and restore soil health [10, 11, 12, 13]. The application of additives is a promising method to enhance soil characteristics. In recent years, biochar (B) has gained significant interest as a versatile soil fertilizer, owing to its high porosity, abundant surface functional groups, strong adsorption capacity, and recalcitrant carbon content [14].
Biochar (BC) is plant-derived charcoal used to absorb carbon dioxide when incorporated into soil [15, 16]. It plays a crucial role in long-term climate change mitigation [17] and enhances soil biochemical properties [18]. BC also facilitates large-scale disposal of waste biomass [19]. Studies highlight its significance as a carbon source and soil enhancer, sequestering pollutants and enhancing fertility [20]. Its elemental composition includes essential elements like C, N, and H, alongside lower-nutrient elements [21]. Adding BC improves soil properties such as porosity, bulk density, and water availability [22]. Pyrolysis releases volatile compounds, increasing BC’s surface area and creating pores akin to honeycombs, enhancing water and nutrient retention [23, 24].
BC incorporation enhances soil structure, aeration, nutrient availability, and alters microbial communities, fostering crop growth and yield [25, 26, 27]. It raises soil pH and enhances cation exchange capacity [28, 29]. Amended soils exhibit heightened fertility and nutrient retention [30], with significantly boosted extractable nutrient levels [31]. BC increases hydraulic conductivity, base saturation, and nutrient levels and reduces erosion rate [32, 33]. It halts the leaching of nitrate nitrogen from soils [34]. The diverse pore sizes of BC influence microorganism habitats, promoting beneficial bacterial survival and enhancing bacterial structure [35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41]. BC’s effects on soil microorganisms are influenced by nutrient availability, microbial community composition, plant–microbe signaling, and habitat creation [42].
Climate change disrupts the vital carbon storage in soil, impacting global food production and greenhouse gas emissions [43, 44, 45, 46]. Methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), potent greenhouse gases, primarily from agricultural land, have a significant warming effect [47]. Biochar is pivotal in curbing emissions and averting climate change by enhancing soil quality, reducing pollution, and stabilizing carbon [48, 49, 50]. It is technically and economically feasible for carbon capture and storage [51], disrupting the carbon cycle and preventing emissions from reentering the atmosphere [52, 53]. This fosters soil health, lowers emissions, and boosts carbon sequestration [54, 55, 56].
2. Literature review methodology
A set of thematic keywords were used for exploring the relevant research articles and review papers, such as biochar, feedstock, soil quality, soil fertility, soil pH, soil physicochemical properties, biochar amendments, soil organic matter, carbon sequestration, the role of biochar amendment, plant growth and yield attributes, crop performance, and so forth. In this regard, five different databases were used, namely, Research Gate, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Web of Science, and Scopus. These databases comprise extensively used huge collections of related mainstream research articles. Following this, multiple research and review articles were selected within the era 2000–2022. Furthermore, related research articles referenced in the abovementioned papers were also reviewed.
3. Application of biochar in soil quality improvement
Biochar is considered as a potential soil amendment, as its addition improves the C accumulation (60–80%) in the soil, which is central to the enhancement in the soil properties, and hence, biochar technology could be very effective for soils having low organic matter contents (OM) [22]. The following sections discuss the role of biochar as a potential amendment to enhance soil quality.
3.1 Improvement in soil bulk density
Soil bulk density, a critical indicator of soil physical properties, is closely linked to soil tightness [57]. It reflects soil compaction and health and influences crucial aspects of the plant life cycle [58]. Enhanced soil porosity and aeration, facilitated by biochar, lead to reduced bulk density [59]. Biochar’s lower bulk density contributes to decreased soil bulk density and improved water holding capacity due to its larger surface area [60, 61, 62]. Numerous studies have reported a significant negative impact of biochar addition on soil bulk density [63, 64]. Głąb et al. [65] found a 35% reduction in bulk density with the incorporation of 4% biochar. Similarly, Qin et al. [66] documented a decrease in bulk density with an increase in overall soil porosity after introducing biochar. The influence of biochar on soil bulk density is closely tied to soil texture; coarser-textured soils experience more pronounced reductions compared to finer-textured soils [67]. This may be attributed to the higher bulk density of coarse-textured soils (~1.6 g cm−3) compared to biochar (~ 0.6 g cm−3), allowing interactions between the biochar and soil particles, resulting in a decline in the final bulk density of the soil. Additionally, biochar’s high porosity and sandy soils’ lower porosity contribute to decreased bulk density [68]. Furthermore, the nature of feedstock material and pyrolysis temperature significantly influence bulk density, with higher pyrolysis temperatures leading to lower bulk density [69]. The rate of biochar application also affects bulk density, generally showing a negative correlation with application rate [58].
3.2 Improvement in surface area and soil porosity
Biochar significantly influences soil porosity through its pore distribution, particle size, and connectivity [57]. Studies have reported an increase in soil porosity following biochar addition, ranging from 14% to 64% [22]. Higher pyrolysis temperatures enhance soil porosity, potentially due to organic matter decomposition and the formation of micropores [70, 71]. The impact of biochar on soil porosity depends on soil texture and type, with coarse-textured soils showing a greater increase compared to fine-textured soils, likely due to their lower inherent porosity [72]. In sandy soils, biochar improves porosity by enhancing mechanical interactions with soil particles, leading to notable improvements [73]. Increased porosity positively affects soil microbial activities, and different pore size distributions may influence specific microbial species [74]. Additionally, Seyedsadr et al. [75] found that biochar addition increased total porosity and reduced bulk density compared to compost. They suggested several mechanisms for improved soil porosity, including direct pore effects within biochar, accommodation pores formed between soil aggregates and biochar, and enhanced persistence of soil pores through increased aggregate stability [76].
3.3 Improvement in soil aggregate stability
Soil aggregate stability is crucial for resisting mechanical stresses like surface runoff, water erosion, and precipitation effects [58, 77]. Disintegration of aggregates leads to fine particles susceptible to erosion, potentially forming a soil crust upon re-sedimentation [78]. Biochar application significantly impacts aggregate stability through interactions with soil mineral surfaces, facilitated by oxidized carboxylic groups on biochar particles [79]. This interaction fosters aggregate formation, creating stable microaggregates and larger pores, ultimately enhancing stability and structure [80]. Studies have reported an increase in soil aggregate stability ranging from 6 to 217% after biochar addition [32, 81]. This improvement may be attributed to the high carbon content of biochar, forming bonds with various oxides, and organic matter providing a food source for microorganisms. This leads to increased microbial activity and the secretion of mucilage, contributing to stable aggregates [82]. Additionally, biochar may enhance aggregate resistance against clay swelling and slaking [83].
3.4 Improvement in soil consistency
Soil consistency attributes, such as plastic limit, liquid limit, and plasticity index, are crucial for designing stable slope systems [84]. Understanding soil consistency is vital for engineering applications and agronomic contexts, including tillage operations and compaction. Additionally, biochar application can enhance soil consistency by increasing organic carbon concentrations [85]. Different types of biochar applied to sandy soils at various rates resulted in significant improvements in plasticity index (48–99%) and liquid limits (8–22%) [85]. This improvement is primarily attributed to biochar’s larger surface area and increased porosity [86, 87]. Laboratory experiments by Choudhary et al. [88] showed that biochar addition improved soil consistency limits up to a specific weight limit, leading to enhanced physical properties of the soil.
3.5 Improvement in cation exchange capacity (CEC)
The CEC indicates the ability of soil to absorb, retain, and exchange cations, and enhancing the number of exchange sites for cations can augment the soil CEC contents. Soils having a high CEC can readily absorb K+, NH4+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ and improve the utilization of nutrient ions in soils [89]. The CEC is largely pH-dependent particularly on tropical soils, and some biochars can raise the pH of the soil as well as soil CEC [90, 91, 92]. Use of peanut shell-derived biochars in an acidified soil increased the soil pH, CEC, SOM, as well as plant biomass [93]. Biochar application increases soil charge and cation exchange capacity (CEC) by 20–40% compared to control conditions [94]. Non-wood feedstock biochar exhibits higher CEC than wood-derived biochars [95, 96]. Feedstock type, application rate, and pyrolysis temperature are crucial factors influencing soil CEC regulation [97].
3.6 Biochar application on soil EC and pH modulation
Soil acidity is a significant challenge for upland agriculture, affecting approximately 30% of potential arable lands globally [98]. Factors such as aluminum (Al) toxicity, as well as deficiencies in calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and phosphorus (P), act as constraints on crop production in acidic soils [99]. The alkaline properties of specific biochars play a crucial role in enhancing crop productivity in acidic and highly weathered soils [100]. However, the addition of pine sawdust biochar in sandy desert soil has been observed to decrease soil pH [101]. Hence (Figure 1), it is imperative to exercise caution in selecting the appropriate acidic or alkaline biochar capable of modifying the soil rhizosphere accordingly for optimal plant growth. Electrical conductivity (EC) is closely related to the concentration of salts dissolved in water and is a critical factor influencing upland crop growth (Table 1). Biochar derived from agricultural waste and woody feedstock typically exhibits low to moderate EC, while manure-derived biochar tends to have higher EC [116, 117, 118]. Biochar application has been shown to improve the growth and yield of crops in saline conditions, attributed to higher concentrations of essential ions in the biochar [118]. Most biochars have higher soluble salt content and, consequently, higher EC compared to agricultural soils [119]. However, excessive salt content is detrimental to plants due to reduced osmotic potential. Therefore, maintaining low soil EC is crucial for optimal nutrient availability and plant growth. It is worth noting that the EC of soil may increase with higher application rates of biochar [102, 103, 120, 121]. Rice husk biochar, however, did not significantly impact soil EC [122]. Biochar pH ranges from 4 to 12 and directly influences soil pH upon application. Biochar interacts with aluminum ions (Al3+) and hydrogen ions (H+) in soil, leading to reduced ion concentrations [123]. Higher pyrolytic temperatures can result in biochar with alkaline pH [124]. In acidic soils, biochar additions raise soil pH to varying degrees [92, 125, 126]. The pH increases gradually with higher biochar application rates, but the impact on alkali soils is less pronounced [94]. Biochar additions lead to a 25% increase in crop yield in tropical regions, attributed to lower acidity, whereas effects are less significant in temperate zones [127]. Biochar addition also affects soil pH and the activity of essential ions involved in phosphorus (P) complexation and sorption [128]. Research by Lu et al. [129] demonstrated that various types of biochars enhance soil pH and buffering capacity, correlating with improved soil pH buffering capacity.
Experiment | Feedstock | Temperature (° C) | Application rate | Plant | Effect on soil properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pot | Rice husk | 750 | 0, 2, and 4% w/w | Improved soil properties observed | [104] | |
Pot | Woodchip biochar, straw biochar, and vineyard-pruning biochars | 525 | 3% w/w | Lowered bulk density and enhanced aggregate stability | [63] | |
Field | Poultry manure | 450 | 5 t ha−1 | Increased water retention (3.3–31.3%) after biochar application | [105] | |
Pot | Coffee ground and coffee husk | 530 | 4, 8, 12, and 16 Mg ha−1 | Improved nutrient and water retention, boosting water use efficiency by 50% and enhancing carbon content | [106] | |
Pot | Sludge and straw biochars | 500 | 2 and 4% w/w | Decreased bulk density by 17–18%, tensile strength, and soil surface cracks and increased shear strength. | [107] | |
Field | Barley straw | 400 | 10 t ha−1 | Decreased the bulk density, enhanced soil porosity and s pH, total N, CEC, and available P | [108] | |
Field | Cattle manure | 600 | 0, 1.5, 2.5, and 5% w/w | Increased total porosity by 2–12%, and water use efficiency | [109] | |
Pot | Wood, bamboo, rice straw, and Chinese walnut shell | 500 | 5% w/w | Improved the soil EC, and decreased the soil pH. | [110] | |
Pot | Soft wood biochar made by gasification procedure | 500 and 600 | 4 and 10% w/w | Increased water retention decreased in the pH | [111] | |
Field | Peanut shell | 220 | 5 t ha−1 | Decline the bulk density, increased total N, total porosity, water contents, and nutrient holding capacity | [112] | |
Greenhouse | Wheat straw | 350–550 | 0, 25, and 50 t ha−1 | Decreased the bulk density, enhanced soil porosity, and improved soil 3-phase composition | [44, 45, 46] | |
Greenhouse | Southern yellow pine | 400 | 5, 10, 15, and 20% w/w | Decreased the bulk density (40%), increased soil porosity (50%) and soil pH buffering capacity | [113] | |
Field | Rice husk | — | 0 and 2 t ha−1 | Improved infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, maximum water holding capacity, and aggregate stability. | [114] | |
Pot | Maize residues | 450–950 | 0, 2.1, 4.2, and 8.3 g kg−1 w/w | Improved the soil aggregation (188%) and soil water retention (128.9%) | [115] |
3.7 Improvement in soil organic matter (SOM)
Soil organic matter (SOM) is a vital factor reflecting soil fertility and providing nutrients for soil life [130]. Biochar application increases SOM, with effectiveness dependent on biochar quantity and stability [131, 132]. Biochar contains essential plant nutrients, enriching soil nutrient levels upon application [57]. It also catalyzes the formation of soil organic matter from small organic molecules [82, 133]. Biochar enhances soil fertility and crop yields by boosting SOM content [134]. Elevated SOM content improves crop growth and productivity due to increased soil porosity and nutrient availability [135]. In coastal regions, biochar.
addition increases corn yields while reducing soil salinity [136]. It also enhances root microbe activity and organic matter uptake by plant roots. Chen et al. [133] found that applying biochar at 15 and 30 t ha−1 increased SOM content. Additionally, Liu et al. [137] showed that biochar application reduced organic matter mineralization by inhibiting the β-glucosidase enzyme.
3.8 Improvement in soil biological properties
The effects of biochar application on soil microbial biomass are diverse, with some studies indicating positive impacts [138] and others showing no significant changes [139]. Additionally, biochar can enhance soil microbial biomass carbon, nitrogen, C-mineralization, and enzyme activities [140, 141]. Barman et al. [142] observed an increase in different enzyme types with freshly prepared biochar. Moreover, biochar has been found to mitigate toxic contaminants and modify soil enzymes [143]. Furthermore, biochar application has been associated with increased root colonization and spore germination of mycorrhizal fungus, attributing to improvements in soil properties [144, 145]. It has also shown potential to enhance biological nitrogen fixation in various crops [146, 147, 148]. Shifts in microbial community structures and functions after biochar supplementation are influenced by physicochemical attributes of biochar, organic matter content, nutrient availability, and water retention capacity [149]. Additionally, dominant bacterial groups like
Experiment | Feedstock | Temperature (° C) | Application rate | Plant | Effect on biological properties | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pot trial | Pine needle and | — | 2 and 5 t C ha−1 | Increment in the soil biological activities | [160] | |
Field | Red gram, Maize stalk, cotton stalk, and mesquite wood | 350–400 | 2.5 and 5 t ha−1 | Increment in the population of actinomycetes, bacteria, and fungi | [161] | |
Field | Poultry litter | 300 | 2.25 and 5 t DM ha−1 | Pasture grass | Reduced soil toxicity to | [162] |
Pot | Mixture of maple, oak and birch woody biomass | — | 1 t ha−1 | Increment in the soil potential microbial activities | [163] | |
Field and white peat | Holm oak | 650 | 3% w/w | In strawberry grown in white peat, biochar application altered the rhizosphere microbiology | [164] | |
Field | Local timber harvest | 450–550 | 20 t ha−1 | Increased microbial biomass C, enzyme activities, and phosphatase enzyme | [165] | |
Pot | Orchard pruning biomass | 500 | 65 g kg−1 | Biochar in combination with compost enhanced the population and diversity of microorganisms | [166] | |
Field | Wood biochar | 450–550 | 20 t ha−1 | — | A shift in the bacterial dominated microbial communities was observed after the biochar addition for 3 months | [167] |
Pot | Hardwood lumber scraps | 500–550 | 20% w/w | Biochar alone and in combination with compost altered the soil microbial communities and their functional diversity | [168] | |
Growth chamber/Pot trial | Maize | 210 and 600 | 2% w/v | Improved the symbiotic relationship with | [169] | |
Field | Rice straw | 450 | 1500 kg ha−1 a−1 | Improved the microbial biomass C and microbial biomass N | [170] | |
Field | Waste eucalypt wood | 550 | 10% v/v | Improved microbially mediated OM decomposition, increased microbial activities | [152] | |
Pot | 650 | 0, 0.5, 1, 2, and 4% w/w | Increased sucrase, urease, and catalase activities | [171] | ||
Field | Yellow pine | 350 | 11.2 and 22.4 t ha−1 | Compost amendment delivered more promising results as compared to biochar amendments in terms of microbial biomass | [172] | |
Pot trial | Cherrywood, wood, and maize | 450, 600, and 850 | 2% w/w | Improved soil enzyme activities (N and P cycling) and plant interaction with microbial inoculants | [173] | |
Field | 485 | 2000 kg ha−1 | Improvement in the dehydrogenase activities, fungal, bacterial population and microbial biomass C | [174] |
4. Effect of biochar amendment on soil fertility
Soil fertility refers to a soil’s ability to provide essential plant nutrients for sustained crop productivity [175]. Modern agricultural practices often lead to soil degradation and nutrient depletion [175]. Biochar addition improves soil properties by increasing organic carbon and crucial mineral nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur [176]. However, biochar’s nutrient composition depends on raw material source and pyrolysis conditions, which may not always meet diverse soil requirements [177]. Biochar also enhances nutrient retention and utilization in soil. After incorporation, nitrate and ammonium nitrogen retention increases significantly [178]. Additionally, biochar treatment leads to substantial increases in grain biomass and nitrogen and phosphorus utilization efficiency compared to using nitrogen fertilizer alone [45]. Research on biochar production and applications is rapidly expanding [179, 180]. While carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycling influences soil microbial activity, other essential elements like sulfur, potassium, magnesium, and calcium are crucial for soil fertility and quality [181, 182]. Biochars rich in exchangeable base cations support plant growth [183], and a strong correlation exists between oilseed rape yield and soil potassium content [184]. Comprehensive assessment of soil fertility considers interconnected interactions, with integrative indicators like soil pH, electrical conductivity, and cation exchange capacity providing a more holistic understanding [181, 182].
5. Improvement in carbon (C) sequestration
The rise in ambient temperature due to anthropogenic activities has led to a 0.88°C increase in global surface temperature since the nineteenth century [185, 186]. Biochar application offers an eco-friendly solution for soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration [11, 187, 188, 189]. It enhances SOC recalcitrance under warming conditions, promoting carbon sequestration [190]. Biochar also inhibits SOC mineralization by increasing biochemical recalcitrance or microbial activity [191, 192]. Field experiments over three years demonstrate significant improvements in soil carbon sequestration with biochar addition [193]. Various studies confirm biochar’s efficacy in enriching the SOC pool and reducing GHG emissions in agricultural soils [194, 195, 196, 197, 198]. Feedstock and pyrolysis conditions are critical factors influencing biochar’s effectiveness [199]. Zhang et al. [200] found that biochar addition increases recalcitrant carbon in soil, reducing carbon cycling enzyme activity while enhancing phosphorus, nitrogen cycling enzyme, and oxidase activities. They suggest combining biochar with nitrogen fertilization for enhanced carbon sequestration. Rahman et al. [201] report that biochar application from sugarcane bagasse improves SOC retention and other soil quality parameters. Han et al. [38] demonstrate significant increases in carbon sequestration and reductions in net global warming potential with apple wood-derived biochar application, offering promise for mitigating global warming concerns related to apple production.
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